Intro to Psych Chapters 7 & 8 - FINAL EXAM

cognition

The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.

thinking

The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.

concept

A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

prototype model

A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item to something similar and categorize them

algorithms

Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions—that guarantee a solution to a problem.

heuristics

Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer.

functional fixedness

Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions.

problem solving

The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.

reasoning

The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

confirmation bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them.

availability heuristic

refers to a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

intelligence

All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.

validity

refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

reliability

The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance.

normal distribution

bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range, with few scores on both extremes

development

The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline.

nature

An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes.

nurture

An individual’s environmental and social experiences.

resilience

A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times.

cognitive development

refers to how thought, intelligence, and language processes change as people mature

assimilation

An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge.

accommodation

An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information.

object permanence

Piaget’s term for the accomplishment of understanding that objects exist even if they aren’t directly seen, heard, or touched

conservation

a belief in the permanence of certain attributes of objects despite superficial changes

egocentric

thoughts during the preoperational stage are considered to be this, meaning a preoperational child cannot take others perspectives

executive function

Higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving.

secure attachment

The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment.

Trust versus Mistrust

Erikson’s 1st stage of socioemotional development, birth to 1.5 years, a sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort

Identity versus Identity Confusion

Erikson’s 5th stage of socioemotional development, 10 to 20 years, individuals are faced with finding out who they are, career exploration

Integrity versus Despair

Erikson’s 8th and final stage of socioemotional development, individuals looks back and evaluate what they have done with their lives, can be either positive or negative

authoritarian parenting

a strict punitive parenting style, limits and controls the child with little verbal exchange

authoritative parenting

A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.

neglectful parenting

distinguished by a lack of parental involvement in the child’s life, children may be less competent socially

permissive parenting

places few limits on the child’s behavior, parents let the children do what they want, children receiving this parenting style may fail to learn respect for others, and expect to get their own way

gender

The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither.

sexual orientation

The direction of an individual’s erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male–female relations to exclusive same-gender relations.

preconventional

Kohlberg’s 1st stage of moral development, reasoning is based on primarily the consequences of a behavior and on pnishments and rewards from the external world

conventional

Kohlberg’s 2nd stage of moral development, the person abides by standers learned from parents or society’s laws

postconventional

Kohlberg’s 3rd stage of moral development, the person recognizes alternative moral courses and explores the options