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nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
Charles Darwin
English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)
natural selection
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
heredity
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
genes
the biochemical unites of heredity
identical (monozygotic) twins
individuals who developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
individuals who developed from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but shared a prenatal environment.
epigenetics
the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
The part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.
sympatheic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center
dendrites
a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
axon
the segmented neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action
endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
substance use disorder
disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug
barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
opioids
opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
stimulants
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
level of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
lesion
tissue destruction
EEG (electroencephalogram)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity
CT (computed tomography) scan
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brains structure
PET (positron emission tomography)
a technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
fMRI (functional MRI)
A technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.
hindbrain
consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; directs essential survival functions, such as breathing, sleeping, and wakefulness, as well as coordination and balance
midbrain
found atop the brainstem; connects the hindbrain with the forebrain, controls some motor movement, and transmits auditory and visual information
forebrain
consists of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus; manages complex cognitive activities, sensory and associative functions, and voluntary motor activities
brainstem
the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
hypthalamus
a region of the forebrain below the thalamus that coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
frontal lobes
areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech
parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobes
regions of the cerebral cortex - at the back of the brain - important for vision
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
somatosensory cortex
registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
neurogenesis
the development of new neurons
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Researchers who worked with split brain patients to examine hemisphere specialization.
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously
sequential processing
the processing of one aspect of a problem at a time; used when we focus attention on new or complex tasks
sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hypnagogic sensations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm