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empiricism/empirical methods
Information is collected by objective observations and experimentation using the scientific method.
structuralism
An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind (WUNDT, TITCHENER).
functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish (William James).
behaviorism/behavioral perspective
Focuses on explaining observable behaviors. We behave in ways because we have been conditioned to do so. Skinner (LEARNING, REWARDS, PUNISHERS)
humanistic perspective
Perspective that emphasizes the GROWTH POTENTIAL of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth- think Maslow and Carl Rogers (NEEDS, SELF-ACTUALIZATION)
biological/biopsychological perspective
Looking at the physical and genetic determines of behavior (BRAIN, BODY, GENES, HORMONES)
psychology
Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
nature-nurture issue
The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
Survival of the Fittest (Natural Selection)
Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully (related to evolutionary approach)
biopsychosocial approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis (ECLECTIC)
evolutionary perspective
Explains behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction (SURVIVAL VALUE, OFFSPRING)
psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective
A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders (UNCONSCIOUS, CHILDHOOD)
cognitive perspective
an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes (thinking) and how we view the world.
social-cultural perspective
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking (SOCIETY, CULTURE, GROUPS)
psychometrics
These people eevelop and administer tests. The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
basic research
Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
developmental psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
social psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
applied research
Research designed to help with everyday, practical problems.
industrial-organizational psychology
Uses psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces (HR help, employee incentive programs)
human factors psychology
Explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use (psychology + engineering)
counseling psychology
A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
clinical psychology
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders;able to prescribe medical/drug treatments as well as psychological therapy. Medical degree M.D.
Introspection
The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological process -developed by Wundt.
Mary Calkins
Denied Harvard PhD, but became first female head of American Psychological Association.
Margaret Floy Washburn
First women to get a PhD in psychology.
Gestalt psychology
Focuses on how we organize the world around us - perception. We create order out of chaos and make things "whole".
Sigmund Freud
Most famous psychologist of all time. Developed the psychoanalytic approach. Focused on the unconsciousness, sexual repression and childhood conflicts.
John Locke
Believed knowledge based on our experiences in in life. Nurture. Coined the term "tabula rasa" - we are born a blank slate.
Plato and Socrates
Believed in Dualism and that knowledge is inborn/innate (NATURE)
Aristotle
Believed in Monism and that knowledge comes from experience (NURTURE)
Abraham Maslow
Humanist psychologist that believed in the human's potential, self-worth and self-actualization--created the Hierarchy of Needs
Ivan Pavlov
Russian psychologist- father of classical conditioning- discovered it with his experiment with the salivation of a dog.
William James
First American psychologist, authored the first Psychological Textbook-known as the Father of Functionalism.
BF Skinner
Father of Operant Conditioning - a Behaviorist that created several experiment using reinforcements and punishments to "teach" subjects.
Wilhelm Wudnt
Created first psychology laboratory -known for developing Introspection.
Jean Piaget
Child psychologist that led the "Cognitive" psychology movement and was intrigued with the mind of children (development)
Charles Darwin
Proposed the idea of the evolutionary process through natural selection. Wrote the book -On the Origin of Species-supported that the strongest traits in a species survive.
Culture
Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people - passed down form one generation to another.
Renes Descartes
French, believed in dualism, believed the mind and body communicated through "animal spirits" that flowed through hollow nerves. "I think, therefore I am."
Francis Bacon
(1561-1626) English. One of the founders of modern science, formalized the empirical method. Supported that we perceive patterns even with random events.
Monism
The soul and the body are in fact completely linked to form one entity, whereby one simply cannot exist without the other.
Dualism
The body and soul are separate entities, both fulfilling different roles and significance.
Edward Titchener
Student of Wilhelm Wundt; continued to use introspection, founder of Structuralist school of psychology.
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
testing effect
Repeated self-testing. Enhances memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.
SQ3R Method
Student-directed approach in which students are taught five steps for studying content: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, & Review.
biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
cognitive psychologists
Experiment with how we perceive, think, and solve problems
community psychologist
studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.
Dorothea Dix
A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada.
forensic psychologist
psychologist who applies psychology to law and legal proceedings
School Psychologist
Assesses and counsels students, consults with educators and parents, and performs behavioral intervention when necessary
health psychologists
Psychologists who study the effects of behavior and mental processes on health and illness, and vice versa
Environmental psychologists
study the interaction of individuals with their natural and urban environments. Focus on conservation.
Sports Psychologist
Helps athletes improve their focus, increase motivation, and deal with anxiety and fear of failure
Hindsight Bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
Critical Thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Operational Definition
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.
Replication
Repeating a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding are consistent w another group.
Case Study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Population
All the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
Random Sample
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together-how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). The r-score.
Scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors.
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance.
Double-Blind Procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about specifics of the experiment.
Placebo Effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by knowing they are a part of an experiment
Experimental Group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment.
Independent Variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
confounding variable
in an experiment, a factor OTHER than the independent variable that might produce a change.
Dependent Variable
A variable in an experiment that is being measured.
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
Mean
The arithmetic average of a set of numbers.
Median
The middle score in a distribution.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of numbers.
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
Informed Consent
An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
Inferential Statistice
Results that can be generalized from the sample to the population to other groups.
Descriptive Statistics
Data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.
Histogram
Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
biological psychologists
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. Afferent Neurons
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Efferent Neurons
Note
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