APES Unit 4 Test

What 8 elements make up the earth

Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium.

Plate Boundaries

Divergent, Convergent, Transform

Divergent Boundaries

Places where plates come together

Convergent Boundaries

Places where plates crush or crash together

Transform Boundaries

Places where plates slide past eachother

Oceanic Divergent Boundaries

pull apart

Continental Divergent Boundaries

Rock shifts down

three types of convergent boundaries

Ocean-Ocean, Ocean-Continent, Continent-Continent

Continent-Continent form

mid-continental mountain ranges

Ocean-Ocean

Subduct ocean plate, volcano form

Ocean-Continent

Magmas produced

Elastic Rebound Theory

Forces bend rock on either side of fault

3 types of stress on rock

extensional compressive and transform

Surface Waves

travel on Earth's surface, away from epicenter. Very slow waves. Cause a lot of damage, rolling feeling at end of earthquake 

Body Waves

travel through Earth's interior, spread outward from focus

P Waves

Pressure or compressional waves. Vibrate parallel to direction of wave travel like a slinky.

S Waves

Shear waves. Vibrates perpendicular to direction of wave travel. Like snapping a rope.

Volcano Location

Plate boundaries EQ zones

Pyroclastic

particles thrown into air during eruption - settle to form ash, tuff & agglomerate

Magma extruded to surface to form

extrusive igneous rocks (lava), e.g rhyolite, andesite & basalt (type depends on acidity)

Basic Parts of Volcano

Crater & Caldera

Crater

(depression at the summit of a volcano, connected by a vent or pipe to the magma chamber below)

Caldera

(crater more than 1 km in diameter, formed at the summit of a volcano when lava is drained from an underground magma chamber, causing the summit of the volcano to be unsupported, and to collapse

Types of Volcanos

Shield volcanoes, Cinder cones, Composite volcanoes

Shield volcanoes

• Docile lava outpouring. Only minor pyroclastic material 

• Lava forms broad dome with central crater 

• Slope is 2-10 degrees, like flattened shield 

• Very long lived, very large, massive amounts of lava (pahoehoe and aa) 

   Example: Kilauea, Mauna Loa

Cinder Cones

• Erupt pyroclastic material

• Steep slopes (30 to 40 degrees)

• Not very long lived.

• Typically small, less than 1000 feet tall 

• Often parasitic on larger volcanoes

• Examples: Paricutin in Mexico, Sunset crater in Arizona

Composite Volcanos

• Erupt lava and pyroclastic material

• Intermediate slopes because lava acts like protective coating on pyroclastic layers

• Built up over long periods of time

• Most picturesque, but most violent
  

• Examples: Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Shasta, Mt. Fuji, Yellowstone 

Eruptions from Volcanoes

• May produce ejecta, (lava rock or ash), molten lava, and/or toxic gases.

• Gases: H₂O, CO₂, SO₂, HCl

• Occur when pressure within magma chamber forces molten magma up through a conduit and out a vent.

• Benefits: new landforms, minerals, and nutrients from broken down lava

Eruption of Mount Saint Helens, May 18, 1980

• The eruption of Mount Saint Helens was the most destructive in the history of the United States

• Mount Saint Helens is located in southwest Washington in the Cascade Range, a mountain range dominated by periodically active volcanic peaks.

Rock cycle

the constant formation and destruction of rock.  

Rocks

• Igneous rocks- rocks that form directly from magma.

  • Intrusive igneous- form from within Earth as magma cools.  

  • Extrusive igneous- from when magma cools above Earth. (ex.  A volcano that ejects magma out will form this)

• Sedimentary rocks- form when sediment such as mud, sands, or gravels are compressed by overlying sediments.

• Metamorphic rocks- form when sedimentary, igneous or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temperatures and pressures. 

Weathering and Erosion

• Weathering- when rocks are exposed to air, water, certain chemicals or biological agents that degrade the rock.

Physical weathering

the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals.

Chemical weathering

the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions.

Erosion

the physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem.  Wind, water, ice transport and living organisms can erode materials. 

Deposition

the accumulation or depositing of eroded material such as sediment, rock fragments or soil.

Soil is important because it

• Is a medium for plant growth

• Serves as a filter for water

• A habitat for living organisms

• Serves as a filter for pollutants

Parent material

what the soil is made from influences soil formation

Climate

what type of climate influences soil formation

Topography

the surface and slope can influence soil formation

Organisms

plants and animals can have an effect on soil formation

Time

the amount of time a soil has spent developing can determine soil properties.

Parent Material

the rock material from which soil is derived.

Soil Horizons

• O horizon- (organic layer)  composed of the leaves, needles, twigs and animal bodies on the surface.

• A horizon- (topsoil) the zone of organic material and minerals mixed together.  

• B horizon- (subsoil) composed primarily of mineral material with very little organic matter

• C horizon- (parent material) the least weathered horizon and is similar to the parent material.

Types of soil

Sand, Silt, Clay

Texture

the percentage of sand, silt and clay the soil contains.

Porosity

how quickly the soil drains (which depends on its texture)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

the ability of a soil to adsorb and release cations, positively charged mineral ions.

A high CEC leads to

more nutrients available for plants. but… It also increases based on the amount of clay in the soil. 

Soil bases

calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium

Soil Acids

aluminum and hydrogen 

Base saturation

the proportion of soil bases to soil acids

Many plants are sensitive to pH so the base saturation is very important when determining soil health.

Layers of Atmosphere

Exosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere. Stratosphere, & Troposphere

Atmosphere Compostion

78% Nitrogen, 20.9% Oxygen

El Niño (The Warm Phase)

• Ocean: Warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central/east Pacific.

• Winds: Weaker easterly trade winds.

• Weather Impacts (U.S.): Drier and warmer in the North; wetter in the Southeast/Gulf Coast.

• Hurricane Season: Suppresses Atlantic hurricanes

La Niña (The Cold Phase)

• Ocean: Cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central/east Pacific.

• Winds: Stronger easterly trade winds.

• Weather Impacts (U.S.): Drought in the South; heavy rains/flooding in the Pacific Northwest & Canada; cooler winters in the North.

• Hurricane Season: Favors more active Atlantic hurricane seasons

El nino & la nina is the

ENSO (El Niño-Southern Oscillation)