American Democracy: Past and Promise Midterm
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Mercy Otis Warren
Who: Early American political writer and propagandist.
What: Published plays, poems, and histories promoting independence and criticizing British rule.
Where: Massachusetts, American colonies.
When: Lived 1728-1814.
How: Used her writing to argue for liberty and later wrote one of the first histories of the American Revolution.
Why: She gave women a voice in Revolutionary politics. She demonstrated that women could participate in meaningful and productive political discussions and debates.
Stamp Act
Who: British Parliament; American colonists.
What: Tax requiring printed materials to use stamped paper.
Where: American colonies.
When: 1765.
How: Direct tax on colonists without their consent.
Why: Sparked major protests; "no taxation without representation." Led to boycotts and mob actions to oppose the British.
Proclamation of 1763
Who: King George III of Britain.
What: Forbade colonists from settling west of the
Appalachian Mountains.
Where: North American frontier.
When: 1763.
How: Issued after Pontiac's Rebellion to avoid conflict with Native nations.
Why: Angered colonists; led to resentment towards Britain. Increased a sense that Britain was unjustly limiting colonial opportunities
Thomas Jefferson
Who: Founding Father, 3rd U.S. president.
What: Author of the Declaration of Independence, supporter of republican ideals.
Where: Virginia, U.S.
When: 1743-1826.
How: Advocated for democracy, oversaw Louisiana Purchase.
Why: Central figure in U.S. founding, though complicated by his role as a slaveholder. Highlighted the struggle of morals vs the practices in the United States
Nero Brewster
Who: Enslaved African American.
What: Petitioned for freedom during Revolution.
Where: Massachusetts.
When: 1770s.
How: Appealed to ideals of liberty.
Why: His petitions demonstrate that enslaved people were not passive, but active participants in shaping debates over liberty.
Coverture
Who: Married women in Anglo-American law.
What: Legal doctrine where women's rights merged into husband's.
Where: Britain, American colonies.
When: 17th-19th centuries.
How: Denied women legal independence.
Why: Shows limitations on women's rights in early America. It illustrates how, even as the Revolution championed liberty, women were excluded
Mary Cranch
Who: Sister of Abigail Adams.
What: Letter writer commenting on politics and daily life.
Where: Massachusetts.
'When: Late 18th century.
How: Corresponded about Revolutionary events.
Why: Shows women's perspectives on Revolution. Her letters reveal how women followed, interpreted, and critiqued political developments. Though not directly in power, women like Cranch influenced thought and record.
Gradual Abolition
Who: Northern states.
What: Laws phasing out slavery over time.
Where: Pennsylvania, New York, etc.
When: 1780s-early 1800s.
How: Freed children born to enslaved mothers after certain age.
Why: Early step toward ending slavery, but slow and limited. These laws highlighted a growing divide between North and South.
Federalists
Who: Supporters of Constitution (e.g., Hamilton, Madison).
What: Advocated strong central government.
Where: U.S.
When: 1787-1788.
How: Wrote Federalist Papers to defend Constitution.
Why: Shaped structure of U.S. government. They argued that a strong federal authority was necessary for stability and unity.
Louisiana Purchase
Who: U.S. (Jefferson) and France (Napoleon).
What: Land deal doubling U.S. territory.
Where: Louisiana Territory (west of Mississippi).
When: 1803.
How: Purchased for $15 million.
Why: Expanded U.S., boosted westward expansion. It secured control of the Mississippi River. it raised questions about slavery in new territories and the constitutional limits of presidential power.
The "Common Wind"
Who: Enslaved Africans and sailors.
What: Spread of news/rumors of rebellion (esp. Haitian Rev.).
Where: Caribbean, Atlantic.
When: 1790s.
How: Carried by sailors, letters, oral networks.
Why: Inspired hope for freedom among enslaved people. It spread revolutionary ideas quickly across the Atlantic
Federalism
Who: U.S. framers.
What: Division of power between state and national governments.
Where: United States.
When: 1787 onward.
How: Built into Constitution.
Why: Balances unity and local control. Federalism allowed both states and the federal government to share power, creating flexibility in governance.
Lord Dunmore's Proclamation
Who: Royal governor of Virginia.
What: Offered freedom to enslaved men who joined British.
Where: Virginia.
When: 1775.
How: Encouraged enslaved people to flee to British lines.
Why: It both offered enslaved people a real path to freedom and terrified slaveholders, deepening colonial divisions. The proclamation revealed how slavery was central to the Revolution and forced colonists to confront the relationship between liberty and bondage.
Phillis Wheatley
Who: Enslaved African American poet.
What: First published African American female poet.
Where: Boston, Massachusetts.
When: 1753-1784.
How: Published a book of poetry in 1773, often tying Christian themes to ideas of freedom.
Why: Her works challenged assumptions about race, slavery, and intellect. She proved the intellectual capacity of African Americans at a time when slavery dehumanized them.
The French and Indian War
Who: French Vs. British; Native Americans sided with the French
What: Control over land at the river
When: 1754, before the Revolution
Where: USA
Why: The effects of taxes impacted the Revolution. Britain gained land but racked up debt → new taxes on colonies.
Natural Rights
Who: Thinkers like John Locke; used by American revolutionaries.
What: Rights to life, liberty, and property (or happiness).
Where: Enlightenment Europe → colonies.
When: 17th-18th centuries.
How: Cited in revolutionary documents (Declaration of Independence).
Why: Provided philosophical basis for independence. created a powerful argument for breaking from Britain, even as contradictions remained with slavery and inequality.
Joseph Harris
Who: African American political thinker (less well-known).
What: Petitioned for equality and liberty in Revolutionary era.
Where: Northern states.
When: Late 18th century.
How: Used language of freedom to demand rights.
Why: Example of how Black Americans used revolutionary ideals to challenge slavery.
Domestic Insurrections
Who: Enslaved people, farmers, rebels.
What: Uprisings within the U.S.
Where: Various states.
When: 18th-19th centuries.
How: Organized rebellions (e.g., Shays' Rebellion, slave revolts).
Why: Revealed tensions about class, slavery, and governance. They showed the fragility of early American stability and forced leaders to confront deep divisions within society.
Edenton Ladies' Patriotic Guild
Who: Group of women in North Carolina.
What: Organized boycott of British goods.
Where: Edenton, NC.
When: 1774.
How: Signed petition, pledged to support American resistance.
Why: Early example of women's political activism. Their collective action challenged gender norms, showing that women could contribute directly to the revolutionary cause.
The Declaration of Independence
Who: Continental Congress, written by Jefferson.
What: Document declaring U.S. independence.
Where: Philadelphia.
When: July 4, 1776.
How: Listed grievances against Britain, affirmed natural rights.
Why: It justified breaking away from Britain and gave a moral foundation for independence. Exposing contradictions in American society, as those promises excluded women, Native peoples, and enslaved Africans.
The Articles of Confederation
Who: Continental Congress.
What: First U.S. constitution.
Where: United States.
When: Drafted 1777, ratified 1781.
How: Loose union, weak central government.
Why: Ineffective, led to Constitutional Convention. It reflected Americans' fear of centralized authority after breaking from Britain. exposed the need for stronger federal power.
The Federalist Papers
Who: Hamilton, Madison, Jay.
What: Essays supporting Constitution.
Where: New York newspapers.
When: 1787-1788.
How: Published to win ratification debate.
Why: They remain key sources for understanding the founders' intent and arguments about checks and balances, federalism, and separation of powers.
Judicial Review
Who: U.S. Supreme Court.
What: Power to declare laws unconstitutional.
Where: United States.
When: Established 1803 (Marbury v. Madison).
How: Court decision by Chief Justice John Marshall.
Why: Strengthened judiciary's role as equal branch. It set a precedent for courts to check Congress and the president
The International African Slave Trade
Who: European traders, African captors, enslaved Africans.
What: Forced transport of Africans to the Americas.
Where: Across the Atlantic (Middle Passage).
When: 1500s-1808 (U.S. banned then).
How: Ships carried millions in brutal conditions.
Why: Fueled plantation economies, shaped U.S. history. It provided the labor that built wealth in the Americas, particularly in the South.
Legislative Branch
Who: Congress (Senate + House).
What: Makes laws under U.S. Constitution.
Where: U.S. federal government.
When: Established 1787.
How: Bicameral structure balances large and small states.
Why: Central to checks and balances, representation of people. Reflects compromises between state and population power
The 3/5 Clause
Who: U.S. Constitutional framers.
What: Clause counting enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxation.
Where: U.S. Constitution, Philadelphia.
When: 1787.
How: Compromise between northern and southern states.
Why: It gave slaveholding states disproportionate influence in Congress and presidential elections, embedding slavery into the nation's political framework.
Balance of Power Diplomacy
Who: European nations.
What: Strategy to prevent one nation from dominating others.
Where: Europe, later applied to colonies.
When: 17th-18th centuries.
How: Alliances shifted to maintain equilibrium.
Why: Influenced colonial rivalries and wars (like the Seven Years' War). It explains why European empires frequently intervened in each other's conflicts.
Freedom Petitions
Who: Enslaved African Americans.
What: Formal requests for emancipation.
Where: Northern colonies (esp. New England).
When: 1770s-1780s.
How: Used revolutionary rhetoric about liberty in petitions to courts/legislatures.
Why: They showed how enslaved people actively fought for freedom by using the language of the Revolution, exposing the hypocrisy.
The U.S. Constitution
Who: Delegates at Constitutional Convention.
What: Framework of U.S. government.
Where: Philadelphia.
When: 1787 (ratified 1788).
How: Created federal system with checks and balances.
Why: It replaced the weak Articles of Confederation, balancing power between states and federal government, and creating a system still in use today.
The Haitian Revolution
Who: Enslaved Africans vs. French colonists.
What: Successful slave revolt establishing Haiti.
Where: Saint-Domingue (Haiti).
When: 1791-1804.
How: Military uprisings, leadership of Toussaint Louverture.
Why: inspired enslaved people globally. It terrified slaveholders in the U.S. but gave hope to enslaved Africans across the Atlantic.
Shay's Rebellion
Who: Farmers led by Daniel Shays.
What: Armed uprising against taxes and debt.
Where: Massachusetts.
When: 1786-1787.
How: Attacked courts to stop foreclosures.
Why: Exposed weaknesses of Articles of Confederation, pushed for stronger government. The rebellion demonstrated the dangers of economic inequality.
Popular Sovereignty
Who: Political theorists, U.S. leaders.
What: Idea that power comes from the people.
Where: U.S. and global politics.
When: 18th-19th centuries.
How: Used to justify democracy (and controversially, slavery decisions like Kansas-Nebraska).
Why: It legitimized the Revolution by arguing that governments derive power from the governed. Later, it became a double-edged sword when used to justify allowing states to decide on slavery.
Anti-Federalists
Who: Opponents of Constitution (e.g., Patrick Henry).
What: Feared strong central government.
Where: U.S.
When: 1787-1788.
How: Wrote essays, pushed for Bill of Rights.
Why: Their resistance led to adoption of the Bill of Rights. They shaped the debate about liberty and government power, ensuring protections for individual rights were added.
The Virginia Plan
Who: Proposed by James Madison.
What: Plan for representation based on population.
Where: Constitutional Convention.
When: 1787.
How: Favored large states.
Why: Shaped debate, led to Great Compromise. influencing the creation of the House of Representatives and helping define the balance between large and small states.
Tea Act
Who: British Parliament.
What: Allowed East India Company to sell tea cheaply.
Where: American colonies.
When: 1773.
How: Undercut colonial merchants → Boston Tea Party.
Why: Though it actually lowered tea prices, colonists saw it as an attempt to enforce taxation without representation. escalated toward full-scale revolution.
Gabriel's Rebellion
Who: Enslaved blacksmith Gabriel Prosser.
What: Planned large slave revolt.
Where: Virginia.
When: 1800.
How: Plot discovered, leaders executed.
Why: Showed enslaved resistance and white fears of revolt. The planned uprising demonstrated the courage and organization of enslaved people, but its failure led to harsher restrictions on Black Virginians.
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