OBHR Exam 2

Biographical characteristics

Basic, factual employee traits (like age, gender, and tenure) that help explain variations in behavior at work.

Ability

An individual’s capacity to perform the tasks in a job, including both intellectual (mental) abilities and physical abilities

Intellectual Ability

Mental capacities such as reasoning, problem solving, memory, verbal ability, and analytical thinking.

General Mental Ability

Overall level of someone’s mental abilities. Higher levels predict better job performanc

Physical Ability

Strength, stamina, coordination, and other physical skills required for certain jobs

Ability Job Fit

Better fit means higher performance and satisfaction, lower turnover

Surface Level Diversity

What type of diversity is based on visible differences like race, gender, and age?

Deep Level Diversity

Deep-level diversity encompasses the differences in values, attitudes, and personality among people

Stereotyping

when someone makes assumptions about a person based on group membership (like gender, age, race) instead of seeing the individual

Discrimination

when biased assumptions lead to unfair treatment.

Managing Diversity

Creating a fair, inclusive workplace by respecting differences.
Includes EEO laws, diversity training, mentoring, inclusion programs, and leaders modeling inclusive behavior.
Focus: inclusion, not just representation.

Groups

Two or more people interacting interdependently.

Teams

People with complementary skills working toward a common goal with mutual accountability.

Stages of Group Development (Tuckman)

Forming: Orientation

Storming: Conflict over roles/goals

Norming: Cohesion and consensus

Performing: Effective collaboration

Adjourning: Ending phase (for temporary groups)

Roles

Expected behavior patterns for a position.
Role conflict: When expectations clash or are incompatible.

Norms

Acceptable behavior standards (performance norms, dress codes).
they shape conformity and deviance.

Status

High-status members have more influence, speak more, and can deviate from norms with fewer consequences.

Group Size

• Small groups: Faster decisions.

• Large groups: More diverse input; risk of social loafing.

Cohesiveness

High cohesiveness + strong performance norms → high productivity.
If norms are low, cohesiveness can hurt performance.

Group Decision-Making

Strengths: More info, creativity.
Weaknesses: Slower, groupthink, risky shift.

Problem-Solving Teams

Focus on process and performance improvements. Meet regularly to discuss ways to enhance quality, efficiency, or work methods

Self-Managed Teams

Teams that take on managerial duties such as planning, scheduling, assigning tasks, and sometimes evaluating performance.

Cross-Functional Teams

Members from different departments; useful for coordination and innovation since they bring diverse expertise.

Virtual Teams

Geographically dispersed; work through electronic communication.
Require strong trust, clear goals, and effective communication.

Team Effectiveness Model – Context

Adequate resources, strong leadership, climate of trust, and performance evaluation/reward systems that support teamwork.

Team Effectiveness Model – Composition

Member abilities, personality traits (conscientiousness and openness), diversity, team size, defined roles, and a preference among members for teamwork.

Team Effectiveness Model – Process

How the team works together, with a clear common purpose, specific goals, team efficacy, effective conflict management, mutual accountability, and a focus on minimizing social loafing.

Social Loafing

Tendency to expend less effort in groups; reduced by setting clear goals and increasing accountability.

Leadership and Trust

Transformational leaders inspire and motivate teams, and a high-trust climate encourages open communication, cooperation, and commitment. Together, they significantly improve team effectiveness.

The Communication Process

Sender encodes → message → channel → receiver decodes → feedback. Noise can distort the message at any point.

Formal Communication Networks

Structured job-related communication that flows vertically or laterally within the organization.
• Chain: Follows a strict hierarchy (top → middle → bottom).
• Wheel: All communication flows through one central leader.
• All-Channel: Everyone communicates freely with everyone else.

Informal Communication Networks (Grapevine)

Social, fast-moving communication that is powerful but not always accurate.

Rich Communication Channels

Channels like face-to-face or video that provide immediate feedback, multiple cues (tone, facial expressions), and high personalization.

Lean Communication Channels

Channels like emails or bulletins that provide fewer cues and less personalization, and are better for simple, routine messages.

Matching Channel to Message

Use rich channels for complex or sensitive messages and lean channels for straightforward, routine information.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering, selective perception, information overload, emotions, language issues, silence, communication apprehension, and lying.

Electronic Communication

Includes email, instant messaging, social media, and videoconferencing; offers speed and wide reach but risks misinterpretation, reduced richness, and overuse.

Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges

Differences in high- vs low-context cultures, language barriers, and varying norms for silence and feedback.

Trait Theories of Leadership

Certain traits predict leader emergence and effectiveness, especially extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, and emotional intelligence.

Ohio State Leadership Behaviors

Leaders show two independent behaviors: Initiating Structure (task-focused) and Consideration (people-focused). A leader can be high or low in either behavior.

Michigan Leadership Behaviors

Leaders fall along a continuum between Production-Oriented (task-focused) and Employee-Oriented (people-focused), with employee-oriented leadership being more effective.

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

Leadership effectiveness depends on matching a leader’s style (task-oriented or relationship-oriented) to the situation’s level of favorableness.

Situational Leadership Theory

Leaders must adjust their style (directive or supportive) based on follower readiness, ability, and willingness.

Path–Goal Theory

Leaders clarify the path to goals, remove obstacles, and adapt their style to increase follower motivation and satisfaction.

Leader–Participation Model

Leaders use different decision-making styles depending on situational variables, focusing on how much follower involvement is appropriate.

Transactional Leadership

A leadership style focused on exchanges such as rewards and punishments to achieve performance.

Transformational Leadership

A leadership style that inspires, motivates, and encourages followers to go beyond self-interest and achieve higher levels of performance.

LMX Theory (Leader-Member Exchange)

Leaders form in-groups, who get more attention, resources, and support, and out-groups, who get less.

Authentic, Servant, and Ethical Leadership

Modern leadership approaches that emphasize integrity, serving others, and making ethical decisions.

Power vs Leadership

Leadership aims to align people toward shared goals, while power is the ability to influence others regardless of goal alignment.

Power vs Leadership

Leadership aims to align people toward shared goals, while power is the ability to influence others regardless of goal alignment.

Formal Power

Power based on position or authority, including coercive (punish), reward (give incentives), and legitimate (official role) power.

Personal Power

Power based on individual qualities, including expert (skills/knowledge) and referent (personal appeal/role model). Most effective long-term.

Rational Persuasion

Using logical arguments and factual evidence to influence others.

Power Tactics

Rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational appeals, exchange, coalition tactics, pressure.

Political Behavior

Actions taken to influence others in situations of scarcity, ambiguity, mistrust, or competition. Can be functional (helps goals) or dysfunctional (harms goals).

Impression Management

Techniques people use to control how others perceive them, including self-promotion, ingratiation, excuses, apologies, and association.

Functional Conflict

Conflict that supports goals, encourages innovation, and improves performance.

Dysfunctional Conflict

Conflict that hinders group performance and creates tension or inefficiency.

Conflict Process

Potential Opposition → Perception & Emotion → Intentions/Strategies → Behavior → Outcomes (Functional or Dysfunctional)

Distributive Bargaining

Negotiation where one party wins and the other loses (zero-sum).

Integrative Bargaining

Negotiation aiming for win-win solutions that expand available resources.

Mediator

Third party who facilitates negotiation but does not impose a decision.

Arbitrator

Third party who makes a binding decision in a dispute.

Conciliator

Third party who improves communication between conflicting parties.

Work Specialization

Dividing work into separate tasks so employees can specialize and become efficient.

Departmentalization

Grouping jobs by function, product, geography, customer, or process.

Chain of Command

The line of authority; includes unity of command (each employee reports to only one boss).

Span of Control

Number of employees a manager supervises; narrow = few, wide = many.

Centralization vs Decentralization

Centralization = decision-making concentrated at top; Decentralization = decisions made at lower levels.

Formalization

Degree to which rules, procedures, and instructions are written and followed.

Traditional Structures

• Simple structure: Small, centralized, informal.

• Bureaucracy: Rigid hierarchy, formal rules, standardized procedures.

• Matrix: Combines functional and product structures, dual reporting lines.

Contemporary Structures

• Virtual: Geographically dispersed, rely on technology.

• Team-based: Organized around teams rather than hierarchy.

• Circular: Emphasizes communication over hierarchy.

Mechanistic vs Organic Models

• Mechanistic: Rigid, hierarchical, highly specialized, efficient.

• Organic: Flexible, adaptable, encourages innovation and collaboration.

Determinants of Structure

Factors that shape organizational structure: strategy, organization size, technology, environment.

Organizational Culture

Shared values, beliefs, and assumptions that guide how people behave in an organization.

Seven Characteristics of Culture

Innovation, attention to detail, outcome orientation, people orientation, team orientation, aggressiveness, stability.

Strong vs Weak Cultures

Strong culture → consistent behavior aligned with values; Weak culture → behavior varies widely.

How Culture Forms

Shaped by founder values, top management, selection processes, and socialization.

Socialization Process

Prearrival → Encounter → Metamorphosis (learning and adapting to organizational culture).

Cultural Transmission

Culture is conveyed through stories, rituals, symbols, and language.

Ethical, Positive, and Spiritual Cultures

Cultures that encourage fairness, respect, engagement, and meaning in work.

Subcultures

Smaller cultures within departments or units; the dominant culture unites the organization.

Forces for Change

Factors driving organizational change: technology, economic shifts, competition, social trends, world politics.

Lewin’s Three-Step Model

Unfreezing → Movement → Refreezing; prepare for change, implement change, and stabilize it.

Resistance to Change – Individual

Fear of unknown, habit, security, economic concerns.

Resistance to Change – Organizational

Structural inertia, group inertia, threats to expertise or resources.

Stress

A dynamic condition where demands or opportunities are uncertain and outcomes matter.

Consequences of Stress

Physiological (illness), Psychological (anxiety, depression), Behavioral (turnover, absenteeism).

Managing Stress – Organizational

Selection, training, goal setting, job redesign, wellness programs.