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_____ are mainly used for ______ storage (glycogen), but can be used for _________ support (cellulose) in plants
Carbs, energy, structural
_______ are diverse _________; ________ and ________ serve as an important energy source and source of essential ________; make up _________ in biological membranes; and make up ________ used for cell communication
Lipids, hydrophobic macromolecules; fats, oils, fatty acids; phospholipids bilayer; steroids
________ have a wide range of function and chemical properties; they aid in maintaining _______ and ________ (keratin), help in _______ (amino acids for growth), they also aid in contractile ________, _________, and _________ (enzymes)
proteins; shape and structure, storage, movement, transport, and chemical reactions
Nucleic acid
carries genetic info of the cell (DNA) and instructions on making specific proteins (RNA)
Cell membrane
separates the interior of the cell from the external environment, and controls what comes in and goes out of the cell
Nucleus
where DNA is stored (membrane bound organelle)
Endoplasmic reticulum
where proteins are made (membrane bound organelle)
Golgi apparatus
stores info on where to send newly made proteins and lipids (membrane bound organelle)
Mitochondria
creates all the energy the cell needs (membrane bound organelle)
Vesicles
shuttles proteins between different parts of the cell (membrane bound organelle)
Taxonomic ranks
Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus (italics), species (italics and lowercase) (everything besides species is uppercase/capitalized)
The three domains of life
Bacteria (unicellular), Archaea (unicellular), and Eukarya (multi or unicellular)
How can one classify an organism as belonging to one of the three domains of life?
The presence or absence of membrane bound organelles (mbos only in eukarya), number of cells (multi/ unicellular), and metabolism
List the kingdoms of life
Eubacteria (Bacteria), Archaebacteria (Archaea), Protista (Eukarya), Plantae (Eukarya), Fungi (Eukarya), and Animalia (Eukarya)
A phylogenetic tree
depicts the relationship between different species or groups of organisms
What do the tips of phylogenetic trees represent?
Species or group of species
What do the nodes on phylogenetic trees represent?
A common ancestor
What is a branching event?
A point where a new group of species formed (different common ancestor)
Prokaryotes are _______ microorganisms, they don’t have a _______ or other ___________ organelles , they do have cell ______
single celled, nucleus, membrane bound, cell wall
Transcription and translation in Archaea is
more similar to Eukaryotes
Peptidoglycan comprises the
Bacterial cell wall
Archaean cell walls can be made of
pseudopeptidoglycan or other components
The Archaean cell membrane can be a
lipid monolayer
DNA is packaged similarly in Archaea and
Eukarya
Prokaryotes are vastly ______ with _______ of different species
diverse, millions
Prokaryotes can (environment)
live in environments similar to ours and extreme environments
What is a microbial mat and what do we know about its history?
A microbial mat is a multi-layered sheet of prokaryotes that could have been the earliest form of life on Earth
The earliest records of life are
fossilized microbial mats called stromatolites
What are some effects of cyanobacteria releasing oxygen?
An increase in atmospheric oxygen, which led to the creation of the ozone layer, and the rise of complex organisms. As well as the development of better oxygen utilizing catabolic pathways
What is an extremophile?
Bacteria or archaea adapted to growing and surviving in extreme conditions
What is an example of an extremophile?
Acidophiles that thrive in a pH of 3 or below
How are prokaryotes cultured in the lab?
Through a liquid broth or solid agar culture medium that contains all nutrients needed for the prokaryote’s survival
Why is it difficult to culture prokaryotes in a lab?
There’s a lack of knowledge in terms of feeding and growing them, and it’s hard to replicate the organism’s natural habitat within a lab environment
Define biofilm
A microbial community held together by an extracellular matrix that consists primarily of complex carbs and proteins secreted by microbes
Biofilm initial attachment phase
Bacteria moves to new environment, it has a weak attachment to the surface and is easy to kill off
Biofilm irreversible attachment phase
Has a more permanent attachment, the pili anchor bacteria to the surface
Biofilm maturation 1 phase
The bacteria multiples and starts to excrete the extracellular matrix made of complex carbs and a few proteins
Biofilm maturation 2 phase
Recruitment of different types of bacteria, the bacteria continues to divide and takes different shape/structure
Biofilm colonization/dispersal phase
The bacteria leaves the biofilm and goes to a new environment to create a new biofilm
Prokaryotic classification
cocci (sphere), bacilli (rod), spirilla (spiral)
Gram-negative bacteria have
A thin peptidoglycan cell wall and an outer cell membrane (in addition to the plasma membrane) (does not trap crystal violet stain, needs counter stain)
Gram-positive bacteria have
A thick peptidoglycan cell wall and no outer cell membrane (it does have a plasma membrane) (does trap crystal violet stain)
If Archaea have a pseudopeptidoglycan cell wall it can stain
gram-positive
Prokaryotes reproduce through
asexual binary fission
In binary fission within prokaryotes
the cell replicates DNA, elongates and divides into two identical daughter cells
Transformation increases genetic diversity in prokaryotes by
absorbing prokaryotic DNA directly from the environment
Conjugation increases genetic diversity in prokaryotes by
the transfer of DNA from one cell to another through a mating bridge
Bacteria is vital to human life because it
moves carbon through the environment, makes nitrogen available to plants by transforming it to ammonia or nitrates, can be used as bioreactors to make important drugs, and live within the human microbiome which keeps us healthy
What is antibiotic resistance?
The excessive use of antibiotics, leading to the natural selection of resistant forms of bacteria
How does antibiotic resistance emerge?
Bacteria causing illness exists with some being drug resistant, the antibiotic is administered and the bacteria causing the illness is killed along with good bacteria. The only bacteria remaining is the drug resistant bacteria which is allowed to flourish. This bacteria can give their resistance to other bacteria, making them antibiotic resistant as well
All Prokaryotic cells have hair-like projections called pili
False
Prokaryotes were the first living organisms to evolve
True
The main difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria lies on the structure of the plasma membrane (cell membrane)
False
Some prokaryotes consist of more than one cell
False
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells
True
Oxygen is toxic to all known prokaryotes
False
Eukaryotes possess
cells with nuclei (surrounded by a nuclear envelope), presence of mitochondria, and chromosomes organized by histones
Eukaryotes reproduce
sexually, although some have lost the ability to produce sexually, and some can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Cell division in eukaryotes occurs via
mitosis
For cell movement eukaryotes use
flagella and cilia
What is endosymbiosis?
specific type of symbiosis, where one cell engulfs another cell, such that the swallowed cell survives and both cells benefit
Mitochondrial shape is similar to many ________ which supports the _________
Alpha-Proteobacteria, endosymbiotic theory
Mitochondrial inner membrane is similar to the _________ which supports the ________
bacterial plasma membrane, endosymbiotic theory
Mitochondrial __________ are similar to _________ which supports the __________
DNA, ribosomes, and tRNA are similar to Alpha-Proteobacteria, endosymbiotic theory
Alpha-Proteobacteria and Mitochondria divide similarly to _________ which supports the ____________
bacterial fission, endosymbiotic theory
Before the evolution of eukaryotes life was _________ and the environment was low in __________ and high in _______
anaerobic, O2, CO2/ N2
What event led to the evolution of eukaryotes? What created this event?
The great oxygenation event created by cyanobacteria releasing oxygen into the atmosphere
In the endosymbiotic theory it is said that an anerobic cell developed a
cell membrane and endomembrane system
In the endosymbiotic theory a Proto-eukaryotic cell engulfs
an aerobic Alpha-Proteobacteria
In the endosymbiotic theory the engulfed aerobic cell becomes
completely assimilated and loses the ability to leave the host
In the endosymbiotic theory the assimilated aerobic cell then becomes
a mitochondrion
Chloroplasts of plants and some protists originate from
a cyanobacteria symbiont
There are over ______ species of protists
100,000
Most protists are _____ but some are ________
unicellular, multicellular
Some protists have animal like _______ but others have plant like ________
plasma membranes, cell walls
Some protists are _____ towards other organisms
parasites
Protists usually reproduce ______ but some can also reproduce ________
asexually, sexually
Most protists exist in ________ environments
aquatic
For locomotion some protists use _______, while others use _________ or a ___________
cilia, flagellum, pseudopod
Some protists are __________ and get their energy from the ________ while others are ________ and must consume their nutrients by __________
photoautotrophs, sun, heterotrophs, phagocytosis
Protists are ________ meaning they have more than one common __________
polyphyletic, ancestor
Why were Eukaryotic “Supergroups” created and what does this have to do with Protist diversity?
Protists being polyphyletic and existing all over the phylogenetic tree led to scientists creating monophyletic “Supergroups” for all Eukaryotes
Describe the characteristics of the Supergroup SARS
Large variability in size, organization, and metabolism
What are the three major lineages of the SARS Supergroup?
Stramenophiles, Alveolates, and Rhizarians
Describe the characteristics of the Supergroup Archaeplastida
Have chloroplasts and are usually capable of photosynthesis, most members possess a cell wall and store food in the form of starch
Are are some major lineages from the Supergroup Archaeplastida?
Green algae and red algae
Most fungi are considered saprobes, which means that they use dead organic matter as a source of carbon
True
The term yeast is commonly used for unicellular Fungi
True
Fungi spores can be haploid or diploid and are used for sexual or asexual reproduction
False
During the stage known as plasmogamy two different nuclei will fuse, forming a diploid nucleus
False
In species belonging to the phylum Ascomycota, ascospores are used for asexual reproduction
False
All fungi are
heterotrophic
Many fungi possess a thick ______ made of ________ and _________
cell wall, chitin, glucans
Some fungi reproduce ______ but others can reproduce both __________
asexually, asexually and sexually
Most fungi are (cellular)
multicellular
Unicellular fungi are called
yeasts
Dimorphic fungi can switch between being
multicellular and unicellular
Mutualism
a relationship between organisms in which both organisms benefit
Parasitism
when an organism lives on or off of another organism (host) and benefits while causing the host eventual harm
Commensalism
a relationship between organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is neither harmed or bettered by the relationship