Chapter 10: Language Production and Bilingualism

Speaking

It is one of our most complex cognitive and motor skills

Three

You can produce about ______ words each second

Slips-of-the-tongue

Researchers have been particularly interested in the kind of speech errors called ________

Slips-of-the-tongue

These are errors in which sounds or entire words are rearranged between two or more different words

Gary Dell and his coauthors

_______ propose that three kinds of slips-of-the-tongue are especially common in English

Sound Errors

It occur when sounds in nearby words are exchange

• E.g., snow flurries → flow snurries

Morpheme Errors

It occur when morphemes, the smallest meaningful units in language, are exchanged in nearby words

• E.g., self-destruct instruction → self-instruct destruction

Word Errors

It occurs when words are exchanged

• E.g., writing a letter to my mother → writing a mother to my letter

Dell and his colleagues

________ proposed a comprehensive theory for speech errors that is based on the connectionist approach and includes the concept of spreading activation

True

Most of the time, however, and especially when you’re producing language during naturalistic conversation, words must be combined together to form sentences

[True or False]

Message Planning

It is the first stage in sentence production, often referred to as ______, where we mentally plan the gist or the overall meaning of the message we intend to generate

Top-down

In sentence production, it said that we begin by producing speech in a ______ fashion.

Grammatical Encoding

It happens to be the next stage in producing a sentence, coming right after message planning.

Grammatical Encoding

During ______, the words necessary to convey the planned message are selected, and the correct morphology is added to the words

Phonological Encoding

It is the third stage in producing a sentence where we convert the units of the planned utterance into a sound code, and this information is used in order to generate the correct movements of the mouth and vocal tract during the speaking act.

False

A general observation about sentence production is that the stages does not overlap in time, meaning that stating the beginning of a sentence should occur initially before forming the finishing phase of the sentence.

Prosody

A speaker can use ______, which refers to the rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns of speech that convey meaning beyond the literal words, in order to clarify an ambiguous message.

Discourse

When we speak, we typically produce ______, or language units that are larger than a sentence

Narrative

It is a particular category of discourse in which someone describes a series of actual or fictional events that are time-related sequences and are often emotionally involving

Format of a Narrative

The parts below is the ______ which is characterized as unusual because it allows the speaker to “hold the floor” for an extended period.

1. A brief overview of the story

2. A summary of the characters and setting

3. An action that made the situation complicated

4. The point of the story

5. The resolution of the story

   1. The final signal that the narrative is complete

Motor Movements

While we speak, we execute elaborate _______ of the mouth, the tongue, and other parts of the vocal system

Gestures

These are visible movements of any part of your body, which you use to communicate

Genevieve Calbris

According to _______, a gesture is “the mental image’s witness”

Iconic Gestures

These are gestures with a form that represents the concept about which a speaker is talking

• E.g., a speaker telling her friend about a car crash that she witnessed on the way to work might vigorously push her left and right fists together as she explains the impact

Deictic Gestures

It is a gesture which involves pointing to some object or location while speaking, and are often accompanied by words such as “This” or “That”

Beat Gestures

It is a gesture that occur in a rhythm that matches the speech rate and prosodic content of speech

• Note: this particular gesture do not convey specific information to a listener, but may be made by a speaker to help that speaker maintain a current speech pattern

Gestures

It influences how you think, facilitate learning, and convey information

Language

______ is a social instrument

Conversation

_______ is like a complicated dance where speakers cannot simply utter words aloud, but rather they must consider their conversation partners, make numerous assumptions about them, and design appropriate utterances

Pragmatics

It focuses on the social rules and world knowledge that allow speakers to successfully communicate messages to other people

Common Ground

It occurs when conversationalists share similar background knowledge, schemas, and perspectives that are necessary for mutual understanding

Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs

They conducted a classic study on the collaboration process that we use when trying to establish a common ground, facilitating a game to be played through 6 trials.

True

Research confirms that people who work together collaboratively can quickly and efficiently develop a common ground.

[True or False]

Directive

It refers to a sentence that asks someone to do something

Direct Request

It is a type of directive which resolves the interpersonal problem in a very obvious fashion

Indirect Request

It is a type of directive which resolves the interpersonal problem through the use of subtle suggestions rather than stating the request in a straightforward manner

Linguists and Sociologists

_______ typically study how large groups use language

George Lakoff

______ is a cognitive scientist in the Linguistic Department at the University of California, Berkeley, who examined how language can structure our thinking

Frames

George Lakoff used the term _____ to describe our mental structures that simplify reality, which also tend to structure what “counts” as facts and refers to a mental structure or schema that shapes how we perceive, interpret, and respond to information

Frames

When people have different ______, it may be difficult to talk with others about many important contemporary issues

True

Employed people spent more time writing than non-employed people

[True or False]

Planning, Sentence Generation, Revising

What are the three phases in writing?

Working Memory

It also plays a central role in writing, which refers to the brief, immediate memory for the material that you are currently processing

Phonological Loop

It stores a limited number of sounds for a short period of time and is tested using the recall of syllables

Visuospatial Sketchpad

It process both visual and spatial information, testing the visual part by the visual shape of the item and the spatial part by the location while writing definitions

Prewriting

It refers to the beginning of a formal writing project which is usually done by generating a list of ideas

Outlining

This particular prewriting method can help you sort these ideas into an orderly, linear sequence

False

During sentence generation, your fluent phases does not alternate with your hesitant phase

[True or False]

False

People actually judge writers to be more intelligent if their essay uses lengthy words rather than shorter ones

[True or False]

First Draft

It is a revision phase of writing where writers have numerous opportunities to make mistakes

Revision Phase

It is a revision phase of writing which emphasizes the importance of organization and coherence for interrelation, which can be time-consuming but reconsider the goals of the paper

Proofreading Stage

It is a revision phase of writing which states that you can proofread someone else’s writing more accurately than your own

Bilingual Speaker

It refers to someone who is fluent in two different languages

Multilingual Speaker

It refers to someone who speaks more than two languages

Simultaneous Bilingualism

It refers to a a bilingual person who learned two languages simultaneously during childhood

Sequential Bilingualism

It refers to a bilingual person who learned their native language as their first language and acquired the non-native language as their second language

Implicit Association Test

It is based on the principle that people can mentally pair related words together much more easily than they can pair unrelated words

Metalinguistics

It refers to the knowledge about the form and structure of language

Publication Bias

Ephemeral nature of the bilingual advantage as identified on attention-related tasks may stem from a _______

Simultaneous Interpreters

It refers to people who have high levels of proficiency in two or more languages, allowing them the ability to translate across languages very quickly and accurately

Age of Acquisition

It is the age at which you learned a second language

Critical Period Hypothesis

It proposes that individuals who have already reached a specific age—perhaps early puberty—will no longer be able to acquire a new language with native-like fluency

Vocabulary

When the measure of language proficiency is _____, age of acquisition is not related to language skills

Phonology

Age of acquisition does influence the mastery of _________

True

It is said that people who acquire a second language during childhood are more likely to pronounce words like a native speaker of that language

[True or False]

True

Age of Acquisition influences the mastery of phonology, and is the strongest when we consider the mastery of grammar, but does not influence language proficiency when it comes to vocabulary

[True or False]

Translation

It is the process of translating from a text written in one language into a second written language

Interpreting

It refers to the process of changing from a spoken message in one language into a second spoken language

Sign Language

It is a process of changing between a spoken message in one language into a second language that is signed, or else from a signed message into a spoken form

Ingrid Christoffels, Annette De Groot, and Judith Kroll

_______ studied the three groups of bilingual people whose native language was Dutch and where all these individuals were also fluent in English