1.1 Ap history Developments in East Asia

Song Dynasty

replaced the Tang in 60 and ruled for more than three

centuries.They lost control of northern lands to invading pastoralists from

Manchuria who set up the Jin Empire. Although the Song ruled a smaller region

then the Tang, their reign was prosperous and under them the arts flourished.

Bureaucracy

China’s strength was partially the result of its imperial

bureaucracy, a vast organization in which appointed officials carried

out the empire’s policies. The bureaucracy had been a feature of Chinese

government since the Qin dynasty (221 B.C.E.–207 B.C.E.). It represented a

continuity across centuries and dynasties. Under the Song, China’s bureaucracy

expanded. Early in the dynasty, this strengthened the dynasty

Meritocracy and the Civil Service Exam bureaucracy

One of Emperor Song Taizu’s

great achievements was that he expanded the educational opportunities to

young men of the lower economic classes so they could score well on the civil

service exams. By scoring well, a young man could obtain a highly desired job

in the bureaucracy. These exams were based on knowledge of Confucian texts.

Because officials obtained their positions by demonstrating their merit on these

exams, China’s bureaucratic system was known as a meritocracy. Though the poor were vastly underrepresented in the bureaucracy, the Chinese system

allowed for more upward mobility than any other hiring system of its time.

However, by the end of the Song, the bureaucracy had grown so large that it

contributed to the empire’s weakness. By creating so many jobs and by paying

these officials so handsomely, the Song increased the costs of government to

the point that they began drying up China’s surplus wealth.

Economic Developments in Post Classical China

The flourishing Tang Dynasty had successfully promoted agricultural

development, improved roads and canals, encouraged foreign trade, and spread

technology. These accomplishments led to rapid prosperity and population

growth during the Song Dynasty. The Grand Canal was an inexpensive and

efficient internal waterway transportation system that extended over 0,000

miles. Expanding the canal enabled China, under the Song Dynasty, to become

the most populous trading area in the world.

Gunpowder

Although gunpowder had been invented in China in previous

dynasties, innovators in the Song Dynasty made the first guns. Over centuries,

the technology of making gunpowder and guns spread from China to all parts

of Eurasia via traders on the Silk Roads.

Agricultural Productivity

Kingdom in present-day vietnam, greatly expanded agricultural production in

China. This rice and other strains developed through experimentation allowed

farming to spread to lands where once rice could not grow, such as lowlands,

riverbanks, and hills. In some areas, it also allowed farmers to grow two crops

of rice per year, a summer crop and a winter crop.

Innovative methods of production contributed to agricultural success. For

example, Chinese farmers put manure

both human and animal on the fields

to enrich the soil. They built elaborate irrigation systems using ditches, water

wheels, pumps, and terraces to increase productivity. New heavy plows pulled

by water buffalo or oxen allowed previously unusable land to be cultivated.

The combination of these changes in agriculture produced an abundance

of food. As a result, China’s population grew quickly. In the three centuries of

Song Dynasty rule, China’s population increased from around 25 percent of

the total world population to nearly 40 percent.

Manufacturing and Trade

Industrial production soared, as did China’s

population. China’s discovery of “black earth”2coal2in the th century

B.C.E. enabled it to produce greater amounts of cast iron goods. Though

massive use of coal to power machines wouldn’t happened until the 18th

century, China did have the greatest manufacturing capability in the world.

The Chinese later learned how to take the carbon out of cast iron and began

to manufacture steel. They used steel to make or reinforce bridges, gates, and

ship anchors. They also used steel to make religious items, such as pagodas

and Buddhist figurines. Steel also strengthened the agricultural equipment,

contributing to the abundance of food production as well.

proto-industrialization,

a set of economic changes in which people in rural

areas made more goods than they could sell. Unlike later industrialization,

which featured large-scale production in factories using complex machinery,

proto-industrialization relied more on home-based or community-based

production using simple equipment. For example, artisans, or skilled

craftworkers, produced steel and other products in widely dispersed smelting

facilities under the supervision of the imperial government. Artisans also

manufactured porcelain and silk that reached consumers through expanding

trade networks, especially by sea. Porcelain was highly desired because it

was light-weight yet strong. Further, it was light-colored, so it could be easily

painted with elaborate designs.z

Maritime navigation

chinese used this navigation, and they redesigned

their ships to carry more cargo. China’s ability to print paper navigation

charts made seafaring possible in open waters, out of sight of land, and sailors

became less reliant on the sky for direction.

China became the world’s most commercialized society. Its economy

changed from local consumption to market production, with porcelains,

textiles, and tea the chief exports. The Grand Canal supported a vibrant internal

trade while advances in naval technology allowed China to control trade in

the South China Sea. The military power of the Tang and Song enabled them

to protect traders from bandits.

Taxes

The Song also promoted the growth of a commercial economy by

changing how they built public projects, such as roads and irrigation canals.

Instead of requiring that people labor on these projects, the government paid

people to work on them. This change increased the amount of money in

circulation, promoting economic growth.

Tributes

Another source of income for the government came from the

tributary system, an arrangement in which other states had to pay money or

provide goods to honor the Chinese emperor. This system cemented China’s

economic and political power over several foreign countries, but it also created

stability and stimulated trade for all parties involved. The origins of the system

existed in the Han Dynasty. By the time of the Song Dynasty, Japan, .orea,

and kingdoms throughout southeast Asia were tributary states. The emperor

expected representatives from tributary states to demonstrate their respect by

performing a kowtow, a ritual in which anyone greeting the Chinese emperor

must bow his or her head until it reached the floor. The Chinese sent out

tremendous fleets led by =heng He to demonstrate the power of the emperor

and to receive tribute.

Social Structures in China

Through most of Chinese history, the majority of people lived in rural areas.

However, urban areas grew in prominence in this productive period. At the

height of the Song Dynasty, China was the most urbanized land in the world,

boasting several cities containing more than 100,000 people. The largest cities,Chang’an ancient capital Hangzhou At the southern end of the Grand Canal and the port city of Guangzhou were cosmopolitan metropolis 2 active centers of commerce with many entertainment options to offer.

China’s Class Structure

Though urbanization represented a significant

development in China, life in rural areas grew more complex as well. The

bureaucratic expansion created an entirely new social class,

scholar gentry

were educated in Confucian

philosophy and became the most influential social class in China.

Three other classes ranked below the scholar gentry: farmers, artisans,

and merchants. The low status of merchants reflected Confucian respect for

hard work and creating value. The tasks of merchants did not require physical

strength or endurance, and they simply exchanged goods without growing or

making anything new.

Role of Women

Confucian traditions included both respect for women

and the expectation that they would defer to men. This patriarchal pattern

DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 7

strengthened during the Tang and Song dynasties. One distinctive constraint on

women’s activities in China was the practice of foot binding, which became

common among aristocratic families during the Song Dynasty. From a very

young age, girls had their feet wrapped so tightly that the bones did not grow

naturally. A bound foot signified social status, something suitors particularly

desired. It also restricted women’s ability to move and hence to participate in

the public sphere. Foot binding was finally banned in 1912.

Intellectual and Cultural Developments

During the Tang and Song eras, China enjoyed affluence, a well-educated

populace, and extensive contact with foreign nations. As a result, intellectual

pursuits (technology, literature, and visual arts) thrived.

Paper and Printing

The Chinese had invented paper as early as the 2nd

century C.E., and they developed a system of printing in the th century. They

were the first culture to use woodblock printing. A Buddhist scripture produced

in the th century is thought to be the world’s first woodblock printed work.

For information on the Gutenberg press, a related technology, see Topic 1.6.

In the Song era, printed booklets on how to farm efficiently were distributed

throughout rice-growing regions.

Reading and Poetry

The development of paper and printing expanded the

availability of books. Though most peasants were illiterate, China’s privileged

classes had increased access to literature. Confucian scholars not only

consumed literature at a tremendous rate, they were also the major producers

of literature throughout the era. The Tang and Song dynasties’ emphasis on

schooling created generations of well-rounded scholar-bureaucrats. Later,

Europeans with such diverse skills would be called “Renaissance men.”

Buddhism in China

from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads.

Its presence is evident during the anarchic period between the later Han and

the Sui dynasties. However, its popularity became widespread during the Tang

Dynasty. The th century Buddhist monk ;uanzang helped build Buddhism’s

popularity in China.

Buddhism and Daoism

Three forms of Buddhism from India came to

shape Asia, each developing a different emphasis:

Theravada Buddhism

focused on personal spiritual growth through

silent meditation and self-discipline. It became strongest in Southeast

Asia.

Mahayana Buddhism

focused on spiritual growth for all beings and

on service. It became strongest in China and Korea.

Tibetan Buddhism

focused on chanting. It became strongest in Tibet.

All buddhism beliefs

All three include a belief in the Four Noble Truths, which stress the idea

that personal suffering can be alleviated by eliminating cravings or desires and

by following Buddhist precepts. All three also embrace the Eight-Fold Path,

the precepts

including right speech, right livelihood, right effort, and right

mindfulness

that can lead to enlightenment or nirvana.

Monks

introduced Buddhism to the Chinese by relating its beliefs to Daoist

principles. For example, Buddhism’s idea of dharma became translated as dao

“the way” .

syncretic

Eventually, Buddhist doctrines combined with elements of Daoist

Chan Buddhism,

also known

as Zen Buddhism. Like Daoism, =en Buddhism emphasized direct experience

and meditation as opposed to formal learning based on studying scripture.

Because of its fusion with Chinese beliefs, Buddhism became very popular

in China. Monasteries Buildings where monks lived together 2 appeared in

most major cities.

Buddhism mástery

The presence of these monasteries became a problem for the Tang

bureaucracy. Many leaders of the Tang Dynasty, which considered itself the

“Middle .ingdom,” had trouble accepting that a foreign religion would have

such prominence in society. Buddhism’s popularity, which drew individuals

away from China’s native religions, made Daoists and Confucians jealous.

Despite monasteries’ closures and land seizures, however, Chan Buddhism

remained popular among ordinary Chinese citizens.

Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism

The Song Dynasty was somewhat

more friendly towards Buddhism, but it did not go out of its way to promote

the religion. It preferred to emphasize China’s native traditions, such

as Confucianism. However, Buddhism had a strong presence and many

Confucians began to adopt its ideals into their daily lives. The development

of printing had made Buddhist scriptures widely available to the Confucian

scholar gentry.

Song Dynasty benefits

benefited from the Confucian idea of filial

piety, the duty of family members to subordinate their desires to those of the

male head of the family and to the ruler. The emphasis on respect for one’s

elders helped the Song maintain their rule in China.

Neo-Confucianism

evolved in China between 0 and 80. It was a

syncretic system, combining rational thought with the more abstract ideas of

Taoism and Buddhism. This new incarnation of Confucianism emphasized

ethics rather than the mysteries of God and nature. It became immensely

popular in the countries in China’s orbit, including Japan, korea, and vietnam.

Japan

separated from China by a sea rather than land, it had more

ability to control its interactions with China than .orea or 9ietnam could. The

impact of Chinese culture appeared in many aspects of life:

Heian period(794-1185)

Japan emulated Chinese

traditions in politics, art, and literature.

• However, Japanese writers also moved in new directions. For example,

in the 11th century, a Japanese writer composed the world’s first novel,

The Tale of Genji. It is the story of a Japanese prince and his life at

court, particularly his many romances.

Feudalism

For hundreds of years, Japan had been a feudal society without

a centralized government. Landowning aristocrats, the daimyo, battled for

control of land, while the majority of people worked as rice farmers.

Feudalism comparison

Japanese feudalism was similar to European feudalism, which is described

in Topic 1.6. Both featured very little social mobility, and both systems were

built upon hereditary hierarchies. In Japan, peasants, known as serfs, were born

into lives of economic dependency, while samurai were born into their roles as

protectors and daimyo were born into lives of privilege. In Europe, the three

groups were serfs, knights, and nobles.

Feudalism comparison

Japanese feudalism was similar to European feudalism, which is described

in Topic 1.6. Both featured very little social mobility, and both systems were

built upon hereditary hierarchies. In Japan, peasants, known as serfs, were born

into lives of economic dependency, while samurai were born into their roles as

protectors and daimyo were born into lives of privilege. In Europe, the three

groups were serfs, knights, and nobles.

Korea Similarity to China

Korea’s location gave it a very direct relationship with China. The countries

shared a land boundary, and China extended both the north and south of korea

Similarity to China

Through its tributary relationship, Korea and China

were in close contact. Thus, .orea emulated many aspects of China’s politics

and culture. It centralized its government in the style of the Chinese. Culturally,

.oreans adopted both Confucian and Buddhist beliefs. The educated elite

studied Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasant

masses. Koreans adopted the Chinese writing system, which proved to be

very awkward. The Chinese and Korean languages remained structurally very

different. In the 15th century, .orea developed its own writing system.

Powerful Aristocracy in China

One important difference between korea and

China was that the landed aristocracy were more powerful in .orea than in

DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 11

China. As a result, the .orean elite were able to prevent certain Chinese reforms

from ever being implemented. For example, though there was a .orean civil

service examination, it was not open to peasants. Thus, there was no truly

merit-based system for entering the bureaucracy.

Vietnam

Like Japan and .orea, 9ietnam traded with and learned from China. For

example, 9ietnam adapted the Chinese writing system and architectural styles.

However, 9ietnam had a more adversarial relationship with China. At times,

the 9ietnamese launched violent rebellions against Chinese influence.

Gender and social structure

9ietnamese culture differed from Chinese

culture in several ways, which explains the strong resistance to Chinese power.

For example, 9ietnamese women enjoyed greater independence in their married

lives than did Chinese women in the Confucian tradition. While the Chinese

lived in extended families preferred nuclear families (just a

wife, husband, and their children

Vietnam structure

adopted a merit-based bureaucracy of educated men,

the 9ietnamese system did not function like the Chinese scholar-bureaucracy.

Instead of loyalty to the emperor, scholar-officials in 9ietnam owed more

allegiance to the village peasants. In fact, 9ietnamese scholar-officials often led

revolts against the government if they deemed it too oppressive. 9ietnamese

women resented their inferior status under the Chinese.

polygyny,

the practice of having more

than one wife at the same time. In spite of 9ietnamese efforts to maintain the

purity of their own culture, sinification did occur.

Military Conflict with China

As the Tang Dynasty began to crumble in

the 8th century, 9ietnamese rebels pushed out China’s occupying army. In their

battles against the Chinese, they showed a strong capacity for guerilla warfare,

perhaps due to their deep knowledge of their own land.