CRES Study Guide

Essed's Definition of Everyday Racism

The marginalization of those who identify as racially/ethnically different; the problematization of other cultures and identities, and symbolic or physical repression of (potential) resistance through humiliation or violence

Diversity ideology

a set of beliefs about how to handle differences between groups of people (Diversity as Acceptance, Diversity as Intent, Diversity as Commodity, Diversity as Liability)

The weathering hypothesis

"chronic exposure to social and economic disadvantage leads to accelerated decline in physical health outcomes and could partially explain racial disparities in a wide array of health conditions" (self)

Aging-related health issues

The Epigenetics Hypothesis

Studies show that traumatic environmental experiences can alter gene expression or silencing; which can in turn affect health outcomes (Over generations)

Anti-miscegenation laws

criminalized interracial marriage and sometimes sexual relations

Sexual racism

prioritizing individuals as romantic partners in a way that reinforces stereotypes and racial hierarchies

Personal preference

exclusionary tactics such as filtering entire racial groups out or stating that you are "not into" or "only into" certain racial groups on an online profile

Racial fetishization

inclusionary tactics that objectify and marginalize racial groups because they are exotic or presumably possess certain essentialized body parts or enact certain sexual roles

The hierarchy of desirability

Asian men are the least desirable racial group to women

Black women are the least desirable racial group to men

Justifications for 'preferences'

Some argue that these preferences are no different than preferences for things like body type and age

Some argue that certain bodies might contain disease

Some blame cultural incompatibility, family disapproval, geographic isolation, different desires for a long- term relationship

Brief History of Housing Discrimination

Long before redlining, Great Britain offered headrights land to settlers (heads of household were given land that once belonged to Native Americans) and the government (U.S. Department of the Interior) also sold other Native land. Decades later redlining had another impact.

FHA

The Fair Housing Act of 1968

The FHA protects people from discrimination when renting or buying a home, seeking a mortgage or housing assistance, or engaging in other housing-related activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex, familial status, and disability

HUD

Housing and Urban Development

The first Housing and Urban Development (HUD) study known as the Housing Market Practices Survey used black and white testers to investigate discrimination in both sale and rental housing.

Audit studies design found rampant discrimination in treatment by landlords and types of information requested by real estate agents

Racial Steering

racial minorities are steered toward neighborhoods with less economic opportunity and greater exposures to crime and pollution

Exclusionary/at the front door

A landlord refuses to rent an apartment to a Black applicant, even though they meet all qualifications, and instead rents it to a white applicant with similar or worse credentials.

Terms and Conditions

A property management company requires Hispanic tenants to pay a higher security deposit than white tenants or only shows Black renters apartments in less desirable parts of the complex.

Upon exit

A landlord routinely withholds security deposits from Black tenants for minor damages but returns them to white tenants under similar conditions. Another example is a bank disproportionately foreclosing on homes in predominantly Black or Latino neighborhoods while offering loan modifications to white homeowners in financial distress.

International Correspondence Analyses of Housing Discrimination

In France, a correspondence analysis found that a fictional profile with a north African-sounding name received 27% fewer responses to rental housing ad inquiries, while another with a sub- Saharan name received 32% fewer

In 2020, Amsterdam scholars found significant rental discrimination against fictitious names of Surinamese women, Arabic men, and Ghanaian men

Racialized Spaces

Those places on campus that are viewed as "race neutral" but are instead locales where "taken-for-granted notions of race mediate the relationship between the school and the actors that comprise it"

Evidence of Racialized Microclimates

College classrooms - students of color are commonly expected to fit in an academic dichotomy of either underperformers (e.g., Black students) or overachievers (e.g., Asian American students).

College cafeterias - racial segregation is often seen in who sits with who

Different races in different dorms or spaces

Segregated college sports

Racial flashpoint

a specific event, situation, or issue that triggers or exacerbates existing racial tensions and can potentially lead to conflict or unrest

The Civil Rights Act 1

1964

Outlawed major forms of discrimination (race, sex, religion, national origin) in schools, workplaces, and public settings. Title VII of the Act applies to workplaces.

The Civil Rights Act 2

1991

Included a right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages

CROWN Act 2019

Creating a Respectful and Open World for Natural Hair -as of 2024; adopted by 27states this law prohibits race-based hair discrimination

IRCA

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986

The IRCA prohibits employers from knowingly hiring, recruiting, or referring fora fee any "alien" who is unauthorized to work.

Microenterprises

Federal laws that prohibit discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, disability, age

do not apply to employers with less than 15 employees

There are also caps on punitive damages by organizational size. Smaller organizations have lower fine caps.

BFOQ

Bona Fide Occupational Qualification specification

Under certain conditions (i.e., primarily when it comes to privacy, safety, or authenticity) employers are allowed to discriminate on the basis of religion, sex, or national origin if they can make a strong case that acting in those interests is essential to their primary business (Walt Disney)

Employment-at-Will Doctrine

In all states exceptMontana (which has a just-cause statute), employment is presumed to be "at-will". This means that "all may dismiss their employee[s] at-will, be they many or few, for good cause, for no cause, or even for cause morally wrong without being guilty of legal wrong."

Survey approach

+ Large scale relatively inexpensive and quick assessments and anonymous. - under reporting and over reporting, perceptions may not reflect reality and usually only assesses the employee's perspective

Audit Study Approach

+ real world job situation and can train individuals and try to rule out extraneous variables. - Cannot control all unobservable characteristics

Correspondence Analyses

+ Can tap into the hidden or less conscious perspectives of employers and inexpensive and can yield statistical evidence of differential treatment. - Qualifications are sometimes ambiguous or signal things other than race like the name Lakisha also signals social class

Interviews with Employers

+ Can understand nuance from the employer's perspective. - Filtered and sometimes litigiously minded reports from employers

Civil Rights Complaint Data

+ Because both employees and employers respond to the accusation so researchers can look at the relational level; employee + employer + neutral judge = can achieve data triangulation and can look beyond hiring phase

Ethnographies

+ Can pick up on emerging trends from being "on the ground" and Can better understand subtle organizational dynamics and inequality mechanisms. - Findings are typically limited to a particular workplace and lack generalizability, time consuming and possible ethical considerations when illegal behavior occurs in the workplace

Brief History of Modern Policing

The genesis of Modern Police in the North developed to deal with challenges of industrialization, protection of goods, and migration (started in Boston in 1838), in the South police evolved from slave patrols (first slave patrol was in 1704), and in the Frontier West police originated to resolve disputes about those 'settling' on indigenous lands

Terror Management Theory

Although policing is not the deadliest occupation, it is primed as such (armor, guns) creates an us vs them

Police Violence Definition

Police Violence - the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual....that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, or psychological harm"

Slow violence

State organized violence as "slow violence" - a violence occurring gradually and out of sight, a violence of delayed destruction....dispersed across time and space....that is not typically viewed as violence at all

Police training

Studies on police academies show that 1) instructors construct an evil, authentically violent, and unpredictable enemy, 2) cadets are taught to view their enemies in racialized and gendered ways, and 3) cadets are encouraged to adopt a warrior mentality

Police culture

Guardian policing (A police officer walking the neighborhood, talking with residents, and working with community leaders to address local issues before they escalate) vs warrior policing (A SWAT team executing a no-knock raid or officers in riot gear using tear gas to disperse a protest)

Police Use of Force Research

When? Use of force increases with more serious offenses, a resistant suspect, a suspect with a weapon, more officers, and when police initiate contact

Who? White officers use higher levels of force than black officers (after accounting for resistance), some suggest that they use force 60% more often. Black suspects perceived as obese have a greater risk

Reduction? Supervisor oversight, restrictive "use" policy frameworks, active body cameras, and police de-escalation training decrease police use of force

Policing and race

Officers are more likely to shoot black suspects, even after race-based differences in crime

Crimmigration Definition

"The "crimmigration" merger has taken place on three fronts: (1) the substance of immigration law and criminal law increasingly overlaps, (2) immigration enforcement has come to resemble criminal law enforcement, and (3) the procedural aspects of prosecuting immigration violations have taken on many of the earmarks of criminal procedure"

Border Patrol Training

From interviews of 60 U.S. Border Patrol agents, Vega (2021) finds that they operate on the logic that their work is uniquely dangerous - This threat is linked to the physical environment and bureaucratic messages about high assault risks - Because of this threat, discretionary force and even lethal force becomes broadly justifiable

Rhetoric about undocumented adults and children

Mirrors the rhetoric of biological invasions

- Outsiders, the "other"

- Threats to the "natural" order

- Ubiquitous

- Stealthy, more dangerous than they appear

- Hard to destroy, more resilient than

"natives"

- Have uncontrollable fertility

- Parasitic, cause a large economic cost

How crimmigration penalizes immigrants outside of the U.S.

Various studies detail how crimmigration works to penalize 1) 'Undesirable, boat people' refugees coming to Australia and takes the form of outsourced offshore detention on Papua New Guinea 2) Chinese and Malaysian foreign nationals who were accused of increasing everyday crime in Japan 3) 'Undesirable' Romanian citizens in France and this leads to expedited deportation

How can one fight colorblind racism and be an anti-racist ally?

Recognize and Reject Colorblind Ideology

Educate Yourself Continuously

Listen to and Amplify Marginalized Voices

Challenge Racist Narratives and Policies

Engage in Difficult Conversations

Support Economic and Social Justice Efforts

Vote and Advocate for Systemic Change

Self-Reflect and Stay Accountable

GET INVOLVED