4. Cognition, Consciousness, & Language (7%)

Cognition

how the brain processes and reacts to the information overload around us

Dual-Coding Theory

States that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information

Information Processing Model

States that thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli

Cognitive Development

The development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan

pace of brain maturation

This is what limits cognitive development during childhood

Jean Piaget

The most influential person in developmental psychology

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

There are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults speak, and that these differences can be explained by dividing the life span into 4 stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. The passage through each of these stages is a continuous and sequential process in which completion of each stage prepares the individual for the following stage.

instinctual interaction with the environment

According to Piaget, infants learn mainly through this

Schema

Organized patterns of behavior and thought. It can include a concept, a behavior, or a sequence of events.

Adaptation

The process that Piaget believed children use to process new information into the different schemata.

Assimilation

The process of clarifying new information into existing schemata

Accommodation

The process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development. Starts at birth and lasts until about two years of age. The child learns to manipulate the environment to meet their needs.

Primary Circular Reactions

Part of the Piaget’s sensorimotor stage in which a body movement happened by accident but results in repetition because the child finds it soothing. An example is thumb-sucking.

Secondary Circular Reactions

Part of the Piaget’s sensorimotor stage in which manipulation is focused on something outside of the body, such as throwing toys from a high chair. The child repeats the action due to a response from the environment.

Object Permanence

The key milestone that marks the end of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

Representational Thought

Begins upon the development of object permanence. Children begin to create mental representations of external objects and events.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development. Lasts from about two to seven years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.

Symbolic Thinking

Developed during Piaget’s preoperational stage and refers to the ability to pretend and have an imagination.

Egocentrism

Occurs during Piaget’s preoperational stage and refers to the inability of a child to imagine another person's point of view.

Centration

Occurs during Piaget’s preoperational stage and refers to the tendency to focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon. Also marked by the inability to understand the concept of conservation.

Conservation

One slice of pizza looks like less to a child than an identical amount when cut in two pieces

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development. Lasts from about seven to eleven years of age and is marked by understanding conservation and the ability to imagine things from others' point of view. Additionally, they can practice logical thought when working with concrete objects and information that is directly available.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development. Begins around age eleven. Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas.

Hypothetical Reasoning

The ability to mentally manipulate variables in a number of ways, generally within the scope of scientific experiments. An important component of the formal operational stage.

Lev Vygotsky

An educational psychologist who proposed that the engine that drives cognitive development is the child's internalization of their culture, including interpersonal skills, societal rules, symbols, and language.

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction. Studied what children can or cannot accomplish without help.

Fluid Intelligence

Subtype of intelligence consisting of solving new or novel problems, possibly using creative methods.

Crystallized Intelligence

Subtype of intelligence more related to solving problems using acquired knowledge, and often can be procedural.

Intellectual Decline

Occurs with age and is related to activities of daily life.

Dementia

A type of intellectual decline that often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to poor judgment and confusion.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Most common cause of dementia

Down's Syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome

Chromosomal abnormalities linked with delayed cognitive development (2)

Delirium

Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes

Delirium

Can be caused by electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reactions, withdrawal, and pain

Delirium Tremens

The delirium associated with alcohol withdrawal.

Mental Set

Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner.

Trial-and-Error

Problem-solving method of trying things until something work.

Algorithms

Problem-solving method of using a formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Deductive Reasoning

Problem-solving method of using top-down reasoning which starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given. An example includes a logic puzzle.

Inductive Reasoning

Problem-solving method using bottom-up reasoning which seeks to create a theory via generalization. Starts with specific instances and then draws conclusions from them.

Heuristics

Simplified principles used to make decisions, colloquially called "rules of thumb"

Availability Heuristic

Used when we try to decide how likely something is. We make those decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined. Often leads to a correct decision, but not always.

Representativeness Heuristic

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category. Such as flipping a coin heads ten times and then neglecting that the actual probability is still fifty percent for the next flip.

Base Rate Fallacy

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring the numerical information

Disconfirmation Principle

If a solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded. However, the presence of a confirmation bias may prevent someone from doing so.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual's belief, while rejecting information that goes against them.

Overconfidence

The tendency to believe that one's decisions, knowledge, and beliefs are infallible.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency for people to overestimate their ability to predict the outcome of events that already happened.

Belief Perseverance

The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Intuition

Refers to the ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence. What the person does "feels correct" to them.

Recognition-Primed Decision Model

A doctor is able to sort through a lot of information in order to identify a pattern. With practice and experience, it becomes accessible without awareness.

Emotion

The subjective experience of a person in a certain situation.

Howard Gardner

Created the theory of multiple intelligences

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Theory describing seven defined types of intelligence including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

Spearman's G Factor

General intelligence factor. Based on the fact that performance on different cognitive tasks is positively correlated, indicating an underlying factor or variable is playing a role.

Alfred Binet

Pioneered IQ tests.

Stanford-Binet IQ Test

IQ = 100 * (Mental age/age)

Consciousness

One's level of awareness of both the world and one's existence within the world.

Alertness

State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think. Higher cortisol levels. Experience a certain level of physiological arousal.

Reticular Formation

A neural structure located in the brainstem that communicates with the prefrontal cortex to keep the cortex awake and maintain the state of alertness.

Beta Waves

Have a high frequency and occur when a person is alert or attending to a mental task. They occur when neurons are randomly firing.

Alpha Waves

Occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed. They are somewhat slower and more synchronized than beta waves.

Theta Waves

Seen during stage 1 and stage 2 of sleep. Irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages.

Stage 1 (NREM1)

Stage of sleep that occurs as soon as you doze off and is characterized by theta waves.

Stage 2 (NREM2)

Stage of sleep that occurs as you fall into a deeper sleep. EEG shows theta waves with sleep spindles and K-complexes.

Sleep Spindle, K-Complex

Seen in stage 2 sleep when the person is relatively difficult to awaken. (2)

Sleep Spindle

Rapid bursts of high-frequency brain waves during stage 2 (NREM2) of sleep that may help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep. In some parts of the brain they are associated with the ability to sleep through loud noises.

K-Complex

Seen in stage 2 of sleep (NREM2) to suppress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also, help sleep-based memory consolidation.

Sleep-Based Memory Consolidation

When some memories are transferred to long term memory during sleep, particularly declarative/explicit memories.

Declarative, Explicit

The types of memories that are stored in long-term memory during sleep-based memory consolidation. (2)

Stages 3 and 4

Stages of slow-wave sleep (SWS). EEG grows progressively slower until only a few sleep waves per second. Rousing someone from sleep becomes exceptionally difficult. SWS has been associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation as well as increased growth hormone release.

Delta Waves

Seen during slow-wave sleep in stages 3 and 4.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM)

Stages 1 through 4 of sleep

Rapid Eye Movement (REM)

Stages of sleep interspersed between cycles of the NREM sleep stages. In this stage, arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles are paralyzed. Also called paradoxical sleep. The stage in which dreaming is most likely to occur. Also associated with memory consolidation.

Sleep Cycle

Refers to a single complete progression through the sleep stages.

Cortisol, melatonin

The 2 main circadian rhythm hormones

Melatonin

Serotonin-derived hormone secreted by the pineal gland. Associated with increased drowsiness.

Cortisol

Steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex, related to the sleep-wake cycle. Contributes to wakefulness. Its levels slowly increase during early morning

Corticotropin Releasing Factor (CRF)

Secreted by the hypothalamus to trigger the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary, which stimulates cortisol release.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

Secreted by the anterior pituitary in response to increased levels of CRF. Its secretion leads to the release of cortisol.

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Theory stating that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry. This activation can mimic incoming sensory information, and may also contain pieces of stored memory.

Problem-Solving Dream Theory

Theory stating that dreams are a way to solve problems while you sleep.

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

Theory stating that dreams contain random thoughts or sequences of thoughts during sleep.

Neurocognitive Models of Dreaming

Models that seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective and cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes.

Sleep Disorders

Disorders that disrupt the sleep cycle of a person. Frequently they occur during NREM sleep.

Dyssomnias

A group of sleep disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep or avoid sleep. Examples include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea.

Parasomnias

A group of sleep disorders that include abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Examples include night terrors, and sleepwalking.

Insomnia

Sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling asleep.

Narcolepsy

Sleep disorder characterized by uncontrolled falling asleep.

Cataplexy

A symptom of narcolepsy characterized by a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours. Usually caused by an emotional trigger.

Sleep Paralysis

A symptom of narcolepsy characterized by a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake.

Hypnagogic Hallucinations

A symptom of narcolepsy characterized by hallucinations when falling asleep

Hypnopompic Hallucinations

A symptom of narcolepsy characterized by hallucinations when awakening

Sleep Apnea

Sleep disorder characterized by the inability to breathe while sleeping.

Night Terrors

Sleep disorder characterized by periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking. Usually occurs during slow-wave sleep in N3 and N4.

REM Rebound

Occurs when people are recovering from sleep deprivation, wherein they show a greater duration of REM sleep than normal.

Hypnosis

When a person appears to be conscious and in control, but they are in a highly suggestible state.