Urban Environments

site

land on which a settlement is built

situation

location in relation to what is around it (coastline) relationship with surrounding area

function

what a place does, every settlement has a role many urban places have industrial role and or service role and also residential, in contrast rural settlements tend to have more agricultural role and few residents

land use

residential mainly, industrial centres

hierarchy of settlement

isolated dwelling-hamlet-village-small town-large town- city- conurbation (increase size, higher population more services) (decrease in frequency)

growth process

can be planned or spontaneous

early settlers took into account pros and cons of site for agriculture, desirable factors are

readily available water, freedom from flooding, local timber for construction and fuel, proximity to rich soils for cultivation (area with good access to resources became cities eg Johannesburg close to mineral resources and New York close to river.)

land use in urban areas

	• industrial - manufacturing industries that process raw materials
	• for services - education, health care, retail, entertainment
	• open space - parks, gardens, sports facilities, rivers
	• for recreation - including open space, sports centres, playgrounds, sports stadia
	• transport routes

threshold

how many people you need to maintain a business or organisation

sphere of influence

how far people are willing to travel for a product

conurbation

when two or more cities merge Radstad or Rur Pot

meta city

large scale city regions eg Chinas Pearl river delta similar to megalopolis where cities sprawl and merge into one

generalisations of hierarchy of settlement

• There are many more small settlements than there are large settlements.

• Towards the bottom of the hierarchy, villages provide a limited range of low-order goods to a small number of people (threshold) living in the village and surrounding hamlets (sphere of influence).

• Small urban areas provide a wider range of high-order goods and low-order goods to a larger population drawn from the town, surrounding villages and hamlets.

• Towards the top of the hierarchy, large urban areas provide a large number of high-order goods and low-order goods to a very large number of people, drawn from a wide

megacities

grow as a result of people migrating to the city for better jobs, dominated by young adults thus also this is associated with high birth rates, as the cities grows it swallows nearby towns and cities, Mumbai, they need new forms of planning and management to deal with their lage size, lots of enviro impacts, In HICs, urban areas generate over 80 per cent of national economic output; in LICs, the figure is over 40 per cent. On the other hand, some aspects of megacities, such as crime and environmental issues, are less attractive.

role of urban areas in the process of development

1. Commercially, towns provide the market and exchange centres necessary for the conversion from subsistence to cash crops.

2. Industrially, towns may provide a stimulus for development - the larger the town the better it is for skilled and unskilled labour.

3. Politically, towns may provide a focus for nationalist feeling and also allow for ethnic, tribal and religious intermixing.

4. Administratively, towns provide economies of scale for health and education.

5. Socially, the intermixing may help weaken ties to traditional rural beliefs and customs.

problems in cities

	high rates of unemployment and underemployment, as urban labour markets are unable to absorb the growing number of job seekers
	• insufficient housing and shelter, coupled with the growth of slums and squatter settlements
	• overloaded and overcrowded transport systems
	• air, water and noise pollution
	• deteriorating infrastructure (basic services) and shortfalls in service delivery (public transport, waste disposal and health care)
	• growing inequalities between areas or districts within a city in terms of access to infrastructure and services

• more social problems: cribe, suicide, drug and alcohol abuse a

• inadequate sanitation and water supplies

factors affecting growth processes:

too hot or cold, wet or dry, (settlements tend to be small because not able to provide enough food), if more food is produced than farmers need non farming services can be supported,

Attempts made by governments to reduce the dominance of very large cities

eg Rio de Janeiro building of Brasilia

Developers and governments have ttempted to build new towns and new capital cities to deflect growth away from these main cities.

James Vance

Vance's model stresses the importance of external influences. The hierarchy evolves from the top down, with large cities acting as centres of innovation for external commercial forces. Boston was the focal point for change, according to Vance. The model can also be applied to Australia, although the nature of the Australian landscape has not favoured infilling to such an extent.

August Losch

•showed that settlements grow better when they have good transport links. and less where accessibility is limited

Bid rent theory

the value of land varies for different purposes such as commercial residential and manufacture. land at centre of city is most expensive because it is the most accessible to public transport and there is only a small amount of it available, land price decreases away from centre but there are secondary peaks eg around main roads

changes in retail

•Low–order goods found in local shops

•High-order goods found in high street shops (CBD)

•Changes…..

•Now we see much more out of town shopping centres/retail parks

•Online shopping

why is their a change in commercial retail

•Suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation

•Technological change – fridges and freezers (no need to shop daily)

•Increased car ownership

•Congestion in city centres

•Inflated land prices in CBD

•Better accessibility of suburban sites

•More women working

• superstores, more space , more parking, more accessible by car

CBD, Central business district

commercial and economic core of a city, are most accessible by public transport, highest land values,

(•Changes similar to retail – movement to outskirts of cities.

•Development of business parks

•Better access by car/more space/cheaper land)

industries found in cities include

• those needing skilled labour, such as medical instruments

• those needing access to the CBD, such as fashion accessories and clothes

• those needing the whole urban market for distribution, such as newspapers.

• These industries all have a central location.

Large cities are attractive for industries for a number of reasons:

• Capital cities such as Paris or Moscow are often the largest manufacturing centres of a nation.

• Cities are large markets.

• Port cities have excellent access to international markets.

• Cities are major centres of innovation, ideas and fashion.

• A variety of labour is readily available, including skilled and unskilled workers, decision-makers and innovators.

planning urban economic activity

•Building of new towns with designated economic areas – Almere,

industrial areas may be placed down wind or downstream of urban areas so they dont pollute the main city, •Building/improving transport routes to encourage location/relocation of economics activities – M4 corridor in UK (London to Swansea) location of hi-tech industry e.g. Amazon, Microsoft and Panasonic

Factors affecting the pattern of residential areas within urban areas

•Rivers – rich people live near in HIC and poor people in LIC (pretty vs risk of flood)

•Steep relief – rich people live on in HIC and poor people in LIC (harder to get up vs view)

•Land Values: In HIC land value decreases from the CBD therefore residential density does as well. Though residential density is very low in the CBD due to the extremely high land values. In LIC rich in centre and poor on outskirts. (close to jobs vs more space for yourself)

•Ethnicity:

•Positive segregation - ethnic groups choose to live together in one area to gain an advantage. e.g Jewish population in Golders Green in London

negative: red lining or apartheid

measuring deprivation

• physical indicators - such as quality of housing, levels of pollution, incidence of crime, vandalism, graffiti

• social indicators - including crime (reported and fear of); levels of health and access to health care; standards of education; proportion of population on benefits (unemployment, disability, free school meals); proportion of lone-parent families

• economic indices - access to employment; unemployment and underemployment; levels of income

• political indices - opportunities to vote and to take part in community

slums and squatter settlements (use term informal settlement)

typically on land that planners do not want steep slopes, flood plains, edge of towns, household lacking one of the following: access to improved water source, access to improved sanitation facilities, sufficient living area, housing durability and security of tenure

formal vs informal

formal economy, complete with offices, factories and commercial buildings,

an informal economy, consisting of servants,

gardeners, maids, cleaners, taxi drivers, prostitutes and a variety of other occupations. Much of the formal economy (the "upper economic circuit") is foreign owned and produces goods and services for an elite population. informal: bazaar (small trade and service establishments) and street: shoe shiners, beggars, thieves, informal sector allows for exploitation of poor by rich, keeps prices down

•Outward Movement (Centrifugal);

Suburbanisation, urban sprawl, counter-urbanisation.

•Inward Movement (Centripetal);

Rural to urban migration, gentrification, re-urbanisation, urban renewal

natural increase when young people move to center for jobs causing urbanisation, leaving behind ageing population

gentrification

	Gentrification is the reinvestment of capital into inner-city areas. It
	refers mostly to an improvement of residential areas, although there is
	an economic dimension, too. It is common in areas where there may
	be brownfield sites (abandoned, derelict or underused industrial
	buildings and land, which may be contaminated but has potential
	for redevelopment).

may lead to displacement of poor people because the housing prices will rise

re urbanisation

revitilaztion of urban areas and the movement of people back into these areas

urban system growth

as area grow more need for clean water, sanitation and waste disposal.

reasons for urb

•Countries reach stage 2/3 of DTM

•Natural increase in population

•Rural to urban migration (push/pull factors, obstacles/barriers)

•Industrialisation

animation

urbanisation

Urbanisation is the increase in the percentage of a population living in settlements which could be classified as urban areas.

suburbanisation

•Rapid urban growth leads new residential areas being built in suburbs.

•Social problems and overcrowding in inner city areas cause richer people to move to suburbs.

•Improving public transport.

•Linked to de-industrialisation such as shipbuilding, warehouses or factories closing.

Sub

urbanisation is the increase in the numbers of people living in the residential areas near the edge of the city (suburbs) leading to the outward growth of urban areas.

Donut cities

•While many CBD’s, are struggling, their urban outer rings are often thriving.

•This is called the ’donut effect’

–Usually caused by urban sprawl

Reasons for counter-urbanisation

•Increased car ownership.

•Increased wealth.

•De-industrialisation.

•Relocation of industry/employment to rural urban fringe.

•Desire for safe, pleasant environment, the rural ideal/utopia.

•Perception of urban areas as dangerous, high levels of crime, racial/ethnic problems.

•Change in tenure from public/renting to private ownership. Sell property and move out

reasons for reurbanisation

•Parts of urban areas which have declined but still have an intrinsic value because of centrality or quality of housing stock attract people.

•Government sees urban decline as a problem and invests money to regenerate an area.

•Prestige project – Olympics.

Tertiary sector increases, restaurants, nightclubs and retailing attracting people

re urbanisation

•Cities become “centres of consumption”.

•Gentrification – Richer people moving into poorer areas.

•Run-down derelict parts of cities can be redeveloped.

•Increased economic activity within cities.

•Cities reinvent themselves as exciting vibrant places to live.

sustainable city

•Maintain population, particularly economically active people. Develop human resources.

•Economic growth.

•Infrastructure and urban services.

•Quality of life.

•Environmental impact. Ecological footprint.

•Circular metabolism.

•Green design and architecture.

•Energy efficiencies. Carbon neutral city.

urban microclimates

climate of a very small or restricted area, especially when it differs from the climate of the surrounding, micro climate of an urban area tends to be warmer than the surrounding area

urban heat islands

a dome of warm air frequently builds up over city centres forming an urban heat island, as a result temp in the city can be several degrees higher then temp in surrounding countryside, heat is released from industrial and domestic buildings (through poor insulation of windows and roots), road surfaces and building material like brick and concrete absorb heat during day and release it at night, dark colours also absorb more heat

high pollution in urban environments

major sources are the burning of fossil fuels car exhaust and CFC’s, photochemical smogs can often be seen over lager cities ( oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust react with sunlight ozone in atmosphere) can worsen asthma, blackening erosion of buildings, acid rain

wind

generally building of urban environments shelter the area from wind but can be fuelled causing strong gust

air pullotion patterns

poor air quality effects half of worlds pop, increasing due to pop and industrial growth, problems worse in LIC’s, LIC’s have less resources to cope, motor vehicles are a large source of air pollution

reducing emissions

burning less fossil fuels, car pooling, using more efficient technologies, cycling and walking more, increased enformcemnt of emission standards

traffic congestion

urban traffic congestion varies according to time of day, week waether and season, rush hours have peak flow, city TPI can range from 0 ecellent to 1 serious, Impact: economic loss, stop/go increases fuel use, more emissions, more noise

managing traffic congestion

optimise traffic-light management, enforce existing traffic laws, more cycling infrastructure, road pricing, charge for workplace parking

depleting green spaces

can improve air quality, trees lower temp, improve well being of citizens, solutions: living roofs, protect green space, redevelop brown sites to green spaces

crime urban areas

most crime is in deprived areas, managing: more policies on patrol, improve street lighting, more women only taxis, improve education

urban deprivation (Barcelona)

new jobs and housing eg Athletes village, employment increased by 50% between 1995 and 2008, before the city had high crime rate, poor living environment, bad health poor education limited housing and service access, 1992 olympics helped

urban growth projections 2050

In 1950, 30 per cent of the world's population lived in urban areas. By 2014 this had risen to 54 per cent and, by 2050, it is expected that 66 per cent of the world's population will live in urban areas. Currently, North

America is the most urbanized region, with 82 per cent of the population living in urban areas, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean (80 per cent) and Europe (73 per cent).

in 2050 a further 2.5bil people will live in urban areas, India Nigeria or China expected to account for 33% of urban growth

cities are usually

productive parts of a nation's economy
• centres of innovation
• trading centres
• experiencing rapid population growth
• manifesting major inequalities
• able to benefit from economies of scale
• having to deal with air and water pollution, congestion and inflated land prices.

resilient cities

economically productive, socially inclusive, environmentally friendly, need proper functioning transport network, energy water and waste infrastructure

the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience”

eco city design

If a city covers too large an area, it becomes congested, overcrowded, overpriced and polluted. It then becomes unsustainable. Compact cities minimize travel distances, use less space, require less infrastructure (pipes, cables, roads, etc.), are easier to provide a public transport network for, and reduce urban sprawl. This makes them more likely to be sustainable.

less fossil fuels, renewable sources, more green spaces, encouraging evolvement of local community, keeping waste production to levels that can be treated locally

sustainable vs unsustainable city

Reduced level of inputs. Satisfying our needs (good quality of life). Reduced levels of waste and pollution (•Need to change the city’s metabolism. (KEY CONCEPT!!)) sustainable circular metabolism

High level of inputs. Not satisfying our needs (e.g.congestion,poor air quality). Producing large amounts of waste and pollution. unsustainable linear metabolism

BedZED

BedZED is an environmentally friendly housing development built in 2000-2002 near Wallington, south London. The 99 homes and 1,405 square metres of workspace have a number of features, including 777 m of solar panels; south-facing houses that are triple-glazed and have high thermal insulation; building materials selected from renewable or recycled sources within 35 miles of the site, to minimize the energy required for transportation; and a location close to a tram line, a train line and bus routes.

The BedZED development has achieved a number of successes compared with UK averages:

• Space-heating requirements are 88 per cent less.

• Hot-water consumption is 57 per cent less.

• The electric power used is 25 per cent less than the UK average, 11 per cent of it produced by solar panels.

• Mains water consumption has been reduced by 50 per cent.

• The residents' car mileage is 65 per cent less.

However, the project cost around £15 million, which equates to approximately £150,000 per home, which is very expensive.

smart city

A smart city is a city that is performing well in 6 categories:

•Economy

•Environment

•People

•Living conditions

•Governance

Mobility

•Using new technology to run city services (crime mapping to help the police reduce crime rates).

•Retrofitting technology to older settlements (CCTV, automated road transport systems).

•Purpose built settlements (Union Point in Boston, US).

sometimes completely new other time they have smart aspects added to them

A city is defined as smart when investments in social and human capital, along with physical infrastructure and ICT, enable sustainable development and a high quality of life