Indigenous Studies Final Exam

Define Colonialism

The policy and/or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over a country or nation, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically (resources and indigenous individuals)

Assimilation

Minority or disenfranchised group assumes the behaviour, values, rituals, and beliefs of the dominant or colonizing group

Define Cultural Relativism

Philosophy that dictates that the best way to understand and view another culture is objectively through the beliefs and perspectives of that culture opposed to subjectively judging it through your own beliefs.

Define and describe Healing lodges

facilities where inmates receive culturally based programming while serving their sentence. Focuses on healing and reconnecting with Indigenous culture, it includes land based learning, cultural ceremonies. Helps to lower the reoffending rate and helps to bring traditional aspects back into their lives.

Define and Describe Counting Coup

Taking items from opposing enemy without killing them. You obtain status through touching enemy in battle or taking one of their possession’s, giving you more status than killing them. Minimizing violence in Bands and Tribal societies

Define and Describe Coppers

Shield sheets of copper, a highly valued form of wealth and status particularly among Northwest Coast Indigenous peoples. Used in Potlatches and other ceremonies.

Define Distant Early Warning Line

Used in war. Used as a system to detect external threats/attacks that could threaten North America

Define and Describe Canadian Rangers

Formed in 1947. Stationed in remote areas of Canada. Composed largely of regional inuit, indigenous, and metis. Conduct patrol and surveillance for Canada sovereignty

Define Frederick O Loft and what he did

Founded the League of Indians of Canada in 1918. Served as a lieutenant in the Canada Expeditionary Force. His work led to the creation of regional organizations to lobby for Indigenous rights

Define and Describe the Daniels Decision

Took place in 2016. The supreme court declared that Metis and non-status Indigenous individuals are “indians” under the Constitution Act of 1867

What is ‘Script’?

Government issued “script” (statement saying they owned 96 acres). Entitled Metis individuals to land or money in exchange for extinguishing their aboriginal title to land

What was the Oka Crisis?

A 78 day standoff between the Mohawk protesters and RCMP. dispute started over the proposal of a golf course built on Mohawk burial land. Federal government purchased the land in question.

What was the Royal Proclamation?

Occurred in 1763, declared all lands west of the Appalachian Mountains as British sovereign territory reserved for Indigenous peoples (all land would be indigenous land unless ceded through treaty. Only the Crown can buy land from First Nations)

Define Indigenous

Any group of people or culture that is native to a specific region. People in a location prior to the arrival of outside colonist or settlers. Present in all regions of the world.

Define Settler

An individual who moves to a new country, territory or region, or is descended from and individual who has done so

What is Ethnocentrism?

The application of ones own cultural beliefs, practices, and behaviours as a frame of reference to judge the beliefs, practices, and behaviours of other cultures.

How does Indigenous Justice Work?

based on the belief of maintaining respectful and balanced relationships

How many diverse environment are in Canada?

6

Describe the Arctic Cultural Region

Northern Coast of Yukon Territory, Western Territories, Nunavut, Northern Quebec. It is the coldest biome on the planet, low amount of annual precipitation. It is home the Inuit. It is close to the Northern tree line with the Tundra, Dene, Innu, and Cree nations also utilized this environment. Innuit communities were comprised of 100-1000 members. Economy largely based on sea mammal hunting (seal, whale, polar bear, fishing, caribous, muskox, and bird eggs). Moving plants to adapt to harsh environments. Longhouses, religious and portable art

Describe the Subarctic Cultural Region

The largest region (Yukon, Western Northwest territories, Northeast interior British Columbia, Northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, North-central and central Quebec, and Newfoundland). Most ecologically diverse cultural region (lakes, rivers, plateaus, and mountains, lowlands). Contains the Dene family in the West; Cree, Innu, and Metis in the East; Beothuk in Newfoundland). Contains 20 different languages and dialects.

Describe Northeast Cultural Region

also called Eastern Woodlands. (southern Ontario and Quebec/ St Lawrence river valley, maritime provinces). Contains two major langauage families (Iroquoian- Erie, Six nations, mohawk, Wendat-Huron; and Algonquian- Ojibwe, Odawa, Algonquin). Iroquoian have permanent settlement, and Algonquian move on a seasonal basis. Live in longhouses and family all lives together.

Describe the Plains Cultural Regions

Central and Southern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana. It is home to the Blackfoot Confederacy; Plains Cree, Nakoda, Assiniboine. A range of foods- moose, bison, fish, deer, beaver, plants, etc depending on the migration patterns. Organized into loosely organized and independent bands (chiefs chosen through hereditary process)

Describe Northwest Coast Cultural Regions

Coastal British Columbia Region. Coastal Rainforests, Boreal forests, mountain passes, and inland desserts. (Contains Haisla, Hetisuk, Dweekeno, Central Coast salish, and northern coast salish). Fishing and maritime resources are primary means of food (salmon, seals, whales, shellfish, but also things like deer, bear, elk, mountain goats, berries, roots). Potlatches held on marked occasions of births, deaths, adoptions, weddings etc.

What is the purpose of Indigenous art?

external expression of individual creativity to convey ideas, concepts, and emotions (created for aesthetic purposes, contributing to something beautiful or enjoyable). AND created with an underlying intent 9relay and reinforce cultural belief, serves a practical function, political and social reasons, display of wealth, education

What are the earliest known physical Indigenous art forms?

Projectile points (spears, darts, arrowheads made out of stone), Pottery (created from local clays, used for storage, cooking, used for multiple purposes), Rock Art (Pictograph, Petroglyph, rock alignments, Inuksuk, Earthworks)

When was the first Permanent European Settlement?

colony established in 1608 in Quebec city for trading and colonial purposes. Alliance with nations in trade, later they participated in raids and military action

What occurred Post 1870?

Decrease in fur trade activities in subarctic regions. Collapse of traditional practices(bison herd is gone). Starvation. Introduction of the NWMP.

What was the main pints of the Traditional Treaty Agreements?

Maintaining their cultural autonomy and political sovereignty. Conflict was viewed as a costly damage to group and resources. Keep cultural viewpoints while maintaining respectful. To keep the promises

When was the first distinct period of treaties? And was the means?

Occurred between 1871-1877

Treaties 1-7. Indigenous leaders wanted this for the fear of self preservation. Ensuring the protection of their lands from settlement.

What was the second distinct period of treaties? What was the means?

Occurred between 1899-1921

Treaties 8-11. Indigenous leaders wanted this for the fear of self preservation. Ensuring the protection of their lands from settlement

Describe the Indian Act?

The government accepted all responsibility for “Indian and lands reserved for the Indians”. This passed in 1867. Allocation of reserve lands. Defines who can qualify for Indian status. Was ultimately viewed as a temporary measure until all Indigenous groups were assimilated.

What were the Impacts of the Indian Act?

Contrary to the letter and spirit of the treaties. It ended traditional governance practices. Enfranchisement. Indian Agents came into play. Criminalization of religion. Residential schools.

What is Ethnogensis?

creation of a new cultural identity by a portion of a pre-existing society. creates new languages, new cultures,

What does Big M Metis?

Refers to the Metis of Western Canada (homeland in the red river area of Manitoba). Origins trace back to the fur trade.

What was the Pemmican Proclamation?

Occurred in 1814. Prevented any pemmican from being exported from the colony. Battle of Seven Oaks occurred on June 19, 1816 Metis attacked to take back pemmican that was seized by the HBC.

What is terra-nullius?

Quarter-sections

What was the Metis Land Conflict?

With the sale of Ruperts Land, Metis in Manitoba had concerns about losing their property. Government surveyors were assessing their properties and breaking into quarter sections. led to the formation of a provisional government led by Louis Riel.

What was the Red River Rebellion?

Louis Riel elected head of the provisional government in jan 1870. Pro-Canadian faction of Settlers from ontario organized resistance to provisional government

What did the Constitution Act do to Metis people of Canada?

recognize and affirm treaty rights to Metis people.

Define what INTRAtribal is

focused on managing community or nation affairs, decisions arrived upon consensus, respect and responsibility maintained between groups and members.

Define what INTERtribal is

maintenance of social relations between Indigenous nations. regulated through councils(regular gatherings of delegates from neighbouring nations meet to discuss grievances, trade, territorial rights, highly adaptable to new circumstances, reaffirms relationships.

What was the First Wave of Organization?

occurred between 1870 to 1918. Organization began in response to the gradual Enfranchisement Act(1869). Stipulated that Chiefs be elected by adult males.Grand general Indian council of Ontario and Quebec formed in response in 1870. Groups contributed to the Indian Act. Sought to make treaty and alliance with the queen.

What was the Second Wave of Organization?

occurred between 1918-1960

Influenced by the First: defining the land issues and lack of treaties in British Columbia. Government viewed Frederick O Loft as a threat. The North American Indian Brotherhood(1944)- most effective organization of that period was created.

What was the Third Wave of Organization

Occurred between 1960-1995. Period of further expansion and organization. John Diefendbaker removed conditions for Indigenous involvement in the Federal politics. The White Paper(1969) occurred to remove legal status for Indigenous individuals. Abolishment of the Indian Act.

What was the Fourth Wave of Organization?

occurred between 1995-present. Increased awareness of Indigenous rights and issues. Truth and reconciliation Commission of Canada was formed. The Idle No More Movement was also formed.

Describe the North West Mounted Police

was formed in response to challenges to Canadian Sovereignty from the United States (American whisky posts being established north of the border). It was fast-tracked due to the Cypress Hills Massacre.

What was the Cypress Hills Massacre?

Occurred May 1873. A party of wolfers from Montana searching for their stolen horses traveled to the Battle Creek Valley of the Cypress Hills. Confronted a band of Nakoda camped near a trading post, attack occurred and 20 men, women, and children were murdered)

Describe what the Gladue Reports are and what occurred?

In 1995 Jamie Tanis was convicted of the manslaughter of her common-law husband. Judge did not consider the amendment to the Criminal code to apply she was not living on a reserve at the time. Appeal to the Supreme Court resulted in it clarifying that the goal of the amendment is to implement restorative justice and decrease incarceration rates. Personal histories by or on behalf of the offender that outline the factors will be considered in the sentencing. (rights that entitle the offenders to have these considerations, to anyone who identifies as indigenous)

What is Self-government and the issue with it?

A relationship between each indigenous nation, the land, and the federal government. The issue that lies is the Canadian government refusing to accept it as a third level of government.

What was Gradual Enfranchisement Act?

occurred in 1869. Introduced to further cultural assimilation. Eliminated hereditary leadership system. Eliminated traditional governmental systems.

What was the Penner Report?

Examined the issues of self government with First Nations. Entrenching the right to self-government in the Canadian Constitution. Recommended that First Nations have authority over cultural and social development, education, family relationships, land use and resources, etc.

What is the purpose of Indigenous Casinos?

provide employment for band members in their communities. financial and social stability. Decrease dependance on unstable government programs.

Describe the Concept of Holism

A single issue, concept, event, or system is made up of multiple different factors that can each have an influences. Factors are all interconnected with each other). Dealing with mental issues, physical issues, spiritual issues, etc.

How did European Contact and diseases affect Indigenous people?

Introduction of diseases to which groups did not have any immunity (small poxs, tuberculosis, Measles, influenza, and cholera). Resulted in mortality rate of 90% in some communities. Placed spiritual beliefs for Indigenous groups in questions, became reliant on Western medicine for cures, adding the medicine chest to the Treaties. Alcohol was introduced to Indigenous communities through trade, which led to substance abuse.

What are current Indigenous Health Concerns?

many of the concerns still apply today. Poor access to adequate health care to meet the needs of communities. Systemic issues from the trauma of Residential Schools (substance abuse, suicide, social issues, mental health). Infrastructure issues. Food quality issues (diabetes coming into play because they are not eating the diet that they originally ate, like meats, berries, bannock, etc).

Describe Urbanization with Indigenous peoples

urban popualtion has increased since the 1950s. By moving from home communities they lose land base traditions, status, no political voice. but they gets the ability to be closer to economics and provided with higher rates of employment and having housing.

What are Friendship Centres?

established in the 2940s, played a key role in assisting Indigenous individuals to establish productive lives in urban centres. They provide educations and training including language and land based, employment, health and wellbeing counselling, programs to support children and youth, recreation and sports leagues, justice and support.

List and Describe the five tenets of Native Science as described by Leroy Little Bear-

Space/Land: land is central to indigenous identity. Knowledge is passed down through oral accounts and the land holds that connection

Constant Motion/Flux: Relationship with the Creation and its natural rhythms support the development of acute observations skills and increases knowledge of the environment change. 

Animation and Spirit: Everything is alive. All living things are equal, humans have a responsibility to everything and they do us. 

Relationship: Reciprocal relationships central tenet to the whole of Creation. Every relationship must be maintained to stay alive.

Renewal: All beings must maintain relationships with each other. Requires regular ceremonies to affirm these relationships. 

Identify two of the six cultural regions that we discussed in class. These two list some of their major geographic/ecological features, at least two of the Indigenous Nations that live there, and two unique cultural trails that they possess.

Subarctic region- largest region (Yukon, western Northwest Territories, northern interior British Columbia, Alberta, Sask, Manitoba, Ontario, north central and central Quebec and Newfoundland. Most ecologically diverse region (lakes, rivers, plateaus, mountains, flatlands). Home to numerous diverse groups (dense family in the west, Cree, innu, Métis in the east, Beothuk in Newfoundland). Resources varied caribou, beaver, buffalo, berries, bear, sheep, moose, plants). Bow and arrow technologies.

Plains cultural region-

Central and southern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Montana. Home to the Blackfoot confederacy, (plains Cree, Nakoda, Assiniboine). The bison jumps were major for those plains groups, they also are supplemented by fish, moose, deer, pronghorn, plants used for food, medicine and spiritual needs. Small kin groups traveled together in the spring, summer, and fall months. More temporary ways of life.

List and describe five impacts the Indian Act had on Indigenous societies in Canada 

• The incorporation of the gradual Enfranchisement Act, Indian agents came into play; dictated band government organization, elections term of office, how money is spent. 

• Residential Schools were established for further assimilation and establishment, children were forced out of their homes and communities. 

• Banned traditional ceremonies like potlatches and other cultural ceremonies that identified their culture, eroding their identity further. 

• Indigenous women lost their status by marrying non-status men, leading to loss of benefits and cultural identity and belonging. 

• Extinguished the Indigenous self-government and replaced it with a band council system controlled by the Canadian government. 

List and describe five issues surrounding when Indigenous cultural material enters into the Western art market

With colonist the concept and practices of selling and collecting art was introduced

-indigenous group members view objects as living beings that have vital cultural, social, and religious roles within their society

-Individuals who are not indigenous group members view objects upon their aesthetic properties as art (lacking the oral histories, cultural meaning, and identity) 

-Indigenous items that have entered this environment/market (stripped of their cultural context and individual histories, handled and viewed by individuals who do not have the cultural or social rights to do so)

-Necessary rituals needed by the object are not conducted 

-Improperly stored and displayed (pipes assembled with their pipe stems)

-Assigned a monetary value that prevents indigenous groups from recovering them

List and describe six reasons for intergroup conflict in pre-European contact Indigenous society 

1 protect territorial and national rights to territory

2 control trade

3 revenge

4 religious purposes

5 personal reasons

6 status in counting coup

What was the White Paper, and what did it propose? Why were Indigenous groups against the proposed policy?

Occurred in 1969

Goal was to eliminate the Indian Act, would remove concept of legal status for Indigenous individuals. Passing off responsibility from the Federal government to the provinces.

They feared it was a further attempt to assimilate indigenous peoples into mainstream society and would undermine the rights