Week 2 PSYC 1100: Psychological Research (Ch.2)

Theory

Well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Ecological validity

Extent to which research findings from a controlled setting can be generalized to real-world situations and everyday life

Statistical analysis

Determines how likely any difference between experimental groups is due to chance

Placebo effect

People's expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation. E.g. Someone was told their sprite had alcohol, so they start acting drunk

Inter-rater reliability

Measure of agreement among observers on how they record and classify a particular event.

Inductive reasoning

Conclusions are drawn from observations. E.g. I slipped on bananas six times today, so I’ll probably slip a seventh time

Illusory correlation

Seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

Experimenter bias

Researcher expectations skew the results of the study

Illusory correlation

Seeing relationships between two things when in reality no such relationship exists

Deductive reasoning

Results are predicted based on a general premise. E.g. I swallowed the food, so it’s in my stomach 🤓

Cross-sectional research

Compares multiple segments of a population at a single time

Confirmation bias

Tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

Attrition (in research)

Reduction in number of research participants as some drop out of the study over time. E.g. 100 participants to 1

Hypothesis

Tentative and testable statement (prediction) about the relationship between two or more variables. Is falsifiable

Observer bias

Tendency of observers to not see what is there, but instead see what they expect or want to see

Belief bias

Tendency to judge arguments based on pre-existing beliefs rather than their logical strength

Ways to reduce bias in experiments

• Define concepts by particular procedures (not pre-existing beliefs)

• Blind studies

• Random selection

Random selection (in samples)

Population members are equally likely of being included. Achieves representativeness and ensures unbiased date

Naturalistic observation

Research method where scientists observe subjects’ behaviors in their real-world environments without interference. E.g. spying on monkeys prance in the jungle

Survey

Method of gathering information from a group of individuals by asking them questions

Archival research

Research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

Quasi experiment

Research study that attempts to establish a cause-and-effect relationship without random assignment. Participants are grouped based on non-random criteria (e.g., pre-existing groups like classrooms or hospitals).

Longitudinal study

Tracks the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period (months, years, decades) to observe changes

Correlation

Statistical measure showing how two variables relate. E.g. higher temperatures and increased ice cream sales

Correlation coefficient

Number from -1 to +1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship between variables, usually represented by r

Positive correlation

Two variables change in the same direction, both becoming either larger or smaller

Negative correlation

Two variables change in different directions, with one becoming larger as the other becomes smaller

What is the best way to answer causal questions?

Perform an experiment

What is the best way to figure out relationships between variables?

Descriptive research (e.g. correlational and/or longitudinal) is often best, since it reduces bias

Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT)

Experiment where

1. Participants are randomly assigned to groups

2. One variable is manipulated

3. A second variable is measured (often dependent)

Independent varibale

Variable that is influenced/controlled by the experimenter. Ideally the only important difference between the experimental and control group

Dependent variable

Variable that the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had

Confounding variable

Unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable

Why are quasi experiments not good at identifying causal relationships?

Because they lack random assignment, leading to selection bias and confounding variables that can create false causal links

Longitudinal research

Research that measures variables at one time point and again in the future. It’s moderately good at identifying evidence of cause

Bayesian thinking

Way of thinking that combines initial understanding with new evidence, to form a more refined belief. E.g. changing your stance on certain drugs based on evidence and research

Empirical evidence

Objective, tangible evidence obtained through sense experience or experimental procedure. It is often reliable, objective, and verifiable

Straw man fallacy

Exaggerating another’s argument to make it easier to attack. E.g. “we should add security cameras” becomes “so you don’t trust your neighbors?”

Signs of avoidance of evidence in self and others

• Accusing wrong motive, low IQ

• Using insulting labels

• Focusing on feelings

• Straw man fallacy

Lysenkoism

Campaign led by Trofim Lysenko, rejecting natural selection for Lamarckian-style beliefs. Suggested seed planting in snow, rotting them

Peer-reviewed journal article

Article revised by scientific experts who help refine content before publication

Importance of replication in experiments

Ensures results are reliable and trustworthy, proving that findings are not chance occurences

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee of administrators, scientists, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving human participants

Informed consent

Process of informing a participant about what to expect in an experiment and then obtaining their consent to participate

Deception (in research)

Purposely misleading participants to maintain the integrity of the study. Surprisingly infrequent

Debriefing (in research)

Participants are told more complete and truthful information after study

Why are animals good substitutes for humans in psychological research?

Because their basic processes are often similar to those in humans, and because it would be unethical in human participants

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

Committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals

In the Schwartz reading on stupidity, the author talks about a friend who dropped out of graduate school because ________________________

It made her feel stupid

Jane Gooddall

Anthropologist who contributed to our understanding of chimpanzee behavior in the wild, using naturalistic observation

A(n) ___________________ is a description of how the researchers will measure the variables of interest

Operational definition

Which research design will allow cause-and-effect conclusions?

The ability of a research study or psychological instrument to consistently produce a given result is called ____________

Reliability

A(n) _________________ is a well-developed set of ideas that proposes an explanation for observed phenomena

Theory