Topic 7 📉(Demography)

What is demography?

The study of populations, their characteristics and how they change.

What factors affect the population of a country?

• Birth rate

• Fertility rate

• Infant mortality rate

• Mortality rate (death rate)

• Net migration

• Life expectancy

• Globalisation

• Family size (fertility rate for a particular year)

What has been the overall population change in the Uk since 1900? - what does this show?

• Between 1944-2016, the Uk population has been growing by less than 1% per year.

• This demonstrates that in the early 1990s, there was negative net migration (more emigrants than immigrants. But since then, there has been positive net migration (more immigrants than emigrants)

• Throughout the 20th century, natural growth had been the main reason for the rise in the uk population. The growth in recent years is due to immigration and rise births = more women of childbearing age are immigrating to the UK.

What evidence is there that the fertility rate declined?

The number of births in the UK declined in the 20th century with the exception of a few baby booms.

• Women are typically having fewer children - a falling total fertility rate. For example, in 1900 the total fertility rate was 3.5 children, compared to 2023 where it was 1.6 children.

What is the theory of demographic transition?

Long term trends in fertility rates are often explained in terms of the theory of demographic transition - this is the change from one pattern of demography to another.

Why was the total fertility rate in pre-industrial societies high?

1.Women had more children as they were an economic asset - they provided more money for he family as they were working.

2.Women had more children as there was a high infant mortality rate = children didn’t survive into adulthood, so they would have more children in hope of more of them serving to provide for the family.

Over time, the infant mortality rate fell, this meant that women didn’t need to have as many children. This has led to the total fertility rate declining. Also led to the transition from high birth and death rates to lower birth rates and death rates.

What are the reasons for the decline in the birth rate and fertility rate, and for smaller families?

1.Contraception - More effective, safer and cheaper, availability of safe and legal abortion since 1967.

2.Compulsory education - Children are no longer an economic asset, but instead an economic liability.

3.Rising cost of having children - Aviva (2011) found that the cost of bringing up a child is on average £271,000 by the time they are 21. 20% of married or cohabitating couples have 1 child.

4.The changing position of women - Rise of feminism, more equal opportunities, priorities changing. Many who work and have children = dual burden + triple shift (Ann Oakley) ,this puts them off having more children.

5.The declining infant mortality rate - There is no longer a need to have more children just because many of them passed away, there is now a better welfare state, medicine etc has meant that the infant mortality rate is low.

6.A geographically mobile labour force - Easier to move around the country/world to work with smaller families.

7.Changing values - Growing individualism, feminism, reflexivity, consumer society.

What are the effects/consequences of the changes in fertility rates?

Positive effect: Declining fertility rates and a reduced burden of childcare have made it easier for women to stay in employment and progress in their careers.

Negative effects:

• Increase in the dependency ratio = the ratio of those who are not of working age to those of working at, essentially children and the elderly who depend on those who work. Youth dependency ratios declined between 1971-2011 because of the falling birth rate, but adult dependency ratios increased as the population aged and death rates fell. This is the short term is good for public finances and the economy (less children to support through wages and taxes) but in the long term this is bad for employers.

• Low birth rate also leads to the rising average age of the population as the proportion of young people declines. As a result = elderly dependency ratio also increases.

Effects on household and family life:

• Falling family size

• Reduction of nuclear families

• Increase in single person households

• Smaller average household size.

What are further negative effects of the declining fertility rate?

• Economic strain - Fewer people in the workforce means a smaller tax base, while government expenses for healthcare, pensions, and education rise.

• Reduced economic productivity - A lower proportion of working age individuals can reduce overall economic growth since there’s less labour to drive productivity and innovation.

• Increased healthcare and pension costs - Aging populations often require more healthcare and pension support, leading to increased government expenditure.

• Pressure on the workforce - Working individuals may face higher tax burdens to supply dependents. They may also experience more pressure to care for elderly family members or support children’s education.

• Potential social issues - Intergenerational tension may arise if younger generations feel overburdened by caregiving and economic responsibilities. Higher dependency can exacerbate inequality, particularly if social safety nets are inadequate.

What are the effects/consequences of the declining fertility rate on family sizes and gender roles?

• Smaller families (nuclear families)

• More neo-conventional families

• More symmetrical families

• More focused socialisation for children

• More geographically mobile

• Increase in families with joint conjugal roles

• Increase in fathers helping with housework and childcare.

Why has the death rate and infant mortality rate declined? (And increased life expectancy)

• Improved hygiene, sanitation and medicine - 1942 Beveridge report lead to the NHS being created in 1948. Clean running water. Past diseases eliminated e.g Cholera = Tranter said 75% of the fall in death rate between 1850s - 1970s were due to a fall in deaths from disease.

• Higher living standards - Higher wages, better food, better appliances at home, better housing conditions, better technology. McKeown = better nutrition increased resistance to infection and increased the survival chances of those who did become infected from diseases such as TB.The Marmot Review (2010) showed a strong relationship between deprivation, social class and mortality = low income, low social status increase the likelihood of premature death.

• Public health and welfare - Beveridge report lead to the establishment of the welfare state in 1948. Free and comprehensive welfare. Childbirth much more safer for women.

• Health education

• Improved working conditions - Technology has taken over some of the dangerous jobs that killed many people. Higher standards of health and safety at work, shorter working hours. More leisure time; work is less physically demanding and reduced risks to health

Why in recent years has the death rate increased?

• Austerity policies by uk governments from 2010.

• Cost of living crisis 2024

• Cold weather and flu

What is life expectancy and how does it link to the death rate?

• Life expectancy is how long on average a person born in a given year can expect to live.

In England 1900: Males = 50 years Females = 57years

In England 2018-2020: Males = 79 years Females = 83 years

• Death rates falling = life expectancy increasing

• In England, the reason that it is so important to consider increasing life expectancy is because it is creating an aging population which has a huge impact on the structure of society, families as well as social policy. If the trend continues, it will lead to radical longevity with more centenarians.

What is the impact of life expectancy rising/death rate declining on families,households, gender roles and childhood?

Families and households:

• More extended and beanpole families

• More neo-conventional families

• More single person households

• More re-constituted families

Gender roles:

• More housework for women, less focus on a paid job.

• Traditional gender roles remaining

Childhood:

• Could be more socialisation - bonding with grandparents.

• But could also be less socialisation due to grandparents needing care and attention

What statistics show there that there is a growing aging population in the uk?

1901: 33% of the population were under age 15. 63% between ages of 15-65 and 4% were over 65.

2012: 17% over 65

The average age of the UK population is rising: (Falkingham and Champion - 2016)

• In 1974 - 33.9 years

• In 2014 - 40.0 years

• By 2037 - 42.8 years

Why is there an aging population?

• Increased life expectancy (over 90s made up 0.4% of the population in 1989, but 0.8% in 2014)

• Declining infant mortality rate

• Declining fertility rate

What are the implications of an aging population?

Strain on public services - More money is needed to help older people - this comes through increase taxes.

Increase in one-person pensioner households - 1 in 8 of every household. Most are female.

Increase in the dependency ratio - 2015: 3.2 workers for every pensioner. 2033 predicted: 2.8 workers for every pensioner. An. Increasing number of older people have to be supported by a decreasing proportion of the working population - tax increase for government spending.

• What is the impact of life expectancy rising on families, households, gender roles and childhood.

Families and Households:

• More extended and beanpole families.

• More neo-conventional families.

• More single person households.

• More re-constituted families.

Gender roles:

• Traditional gender roles remaining

• More housework for women

• Less women working

Childhood:

• Could be more socialisation - children bond with grandparents

• But could be less socialisation due to grandparents needing attention.

What are the positive consequences of an aging population?

• A boost to the economy - emergence of new markets, purchasing power of older people- ‘the grey pound’. 65-74 yr old spending goes on travel, tourism, theatres etc. Many still work as well.

• Less crime - Generally speaking, more law abiding than young people = low crime rates.

• Family support - Rise of neo-conventional families = families need grandparents to look after children. Hidden contribution to the economy.

• More social cohesion and community involvement - Older people play a massive part in helping local communities. Nearly 4.9 million people aged 65 and over in England took part in volunteering in 2013 - 2014.

What are negative consequences of an ageing population?

• A growing burden of dependence and the ‘pensions’ timebomb - increased dependency ratio, could result in higher taxes on those working, to pay for higher levels of government spending on pensions and other services. Occupy beds in hospitals. Consumed about 60% of the 1 billion drugs prescribed in 2013.

• More poverty and family hardship - Some cannot work anymore due to old age/illness,this results n a drop of living standards. 2013 = 1.6 million pensioners were living below the poverty line.

• More pensioner one-person households. - loneliness, growing dependence on families to help - not always available, individualisation and breakdown of extended families have led to this = puts pressure on caring services.

• More work for women - Feminists. = practical burden for women. Dual burden/triple shift is having to work and look after elderly relatives. 25% of women aged between 50-64 regularly caring for an ill, frail or disabled relative, compared to 17% of men.

• Housing shortages - Younger people may have difficulty finding affordable homes of their own.

What are the 5 perspectives on aging?

1. Functionalism and disengagement theory - Cumming and Henry (1961) - marginalisation of old people is actually functional for society. Disengagement (withdrawal) from social roles was necessary and beneficial for society. - makes way for younger gen. Eval: more people are remaining healthy.

2. The interpretation of age - age is a social construct - Hockey and James (1993): the roles of the elderly differs between societies. It is dependent on the culture of a particular society at a particular time. E.g in Britain old age is depicted as similar to childhood through stereotypes/the media. E.g protection, lose status of being adults.

3. Individual and institutional ageism - A systematic problem - institutional ageism is a massive problem.

4. Structured dependency (similar to Marxism) - Phillipson (1982) = the old are no longer of use to capitalism as they are no longer productive. Therefore the state is unwilling to support them.

5. Postmodernism - Blaikie (1999) = in a PM culture, old age need not to be a time of dependency and decline, but instead a time of increased choice and opportunity. The fixed, orderly life course has began to be deconstructed/broken down.

How has migration affected families/gender roles?

• Immigration from south-east Asia might have increased the number of families where women perform traditional, domestic roles. - slowed down speed of change towards more symmetrical families.

• In many countries, families have more traditional gender divisions of labour than is now the norm in the UK. - Indian and Pakistan families are much more likely to see women performing traditional domestic roles and performing Parsons ‘expressive leader’ role, with men being the ‘instrumental leader’ and breadwinners.

• AO3: Much of this immigration took place after the Second World War and there are now second and third generation families where there is some evidence of less traditional gender roles emerging. Asian girls are increasingly aspiring towards careers, for example.

What is another way migration has affected families/gender roles?

• Led to the increase in matrifocal families, migrating from the Caribbean. African-Caribbean families are statistically much more likely to be lone parent families than those from other ethnic backgrounds, but are also more likely to have a dominant female figure and a women as the ‘head of the household’

• This is an example of Rappoport’s cultural diversity in UK families.

• AO3: However, African-Caribbean families are a small minority of families in the UK, and those of them that are matrifocal lone-parent families are a very small minority of such families in the UK. Therefore African- Caribbean immigration has probably not had a very significant impact on gender roles in UK families overall.

• If there has been a significant increase in households headed by a women then other factors, such as increased divorces and changing gender roles in wider society are likely to have had more impact than immigration.

What is globalisation?

• Globalisation is the idea that barriers between societies are disappearing and people are becoming increasingly interconnected across national boundaries.

• It is the result of many processes - e.g the growth of communication systems and global media, the creation of global markets etc.

• Many see globalisation as producing rapid social changes.

• A key change is increased international migration - the movement of people across borders.

How has globalisation affected the UK population?

• More immigration from the EU - In the year ending March 2014, EU immigrants made up about 38% of all immigrants.

• More undocumented workers - (these are those who come and stay in the UK illegally). Home office estimates there are between 500,000 - 800,000 undocumented workers.

• More asylum seekers - At the end of March 2014, there were around 24,000 people seeking asylum in the UK as their country of origin was unsafe.

• Greater cultural diversity - Different cultures and ways of life life come into contact with one another. - Hybrid families

• Changing families - Migrants from Eastern Europe tend to have larger families, this has contributed to a new ‘baby boom’ in the 2000s. Beck and Beck talk of growth of ‘world families’ and ‘distant love’ in which love and other forms of relationships are conducted between people living in different countries and continents.

What are further effects of the globalisation of migration?

• Acceleration of migration - Increaed flows of people in all the major regions.

• Differentiation of Migration - Many types of migrants arriving in most countries. E.g the UK receives refugees, temporary migrant workers and people arriving for permanent settlement.

• Feminisation of migration - In the past most migrants were men. Many female workers move from low wage economies to take on service sector jobs e.g childcare and domestic labour in countries with higher wage rates.

• Growing politicisation of migration - Migration is a prominent and contested political issue in many places. International agreements are put in place to regulate migration flows. Many counties encourage immigrants to integrate into the culture of the society they have moved to = they introduce assimilationist policies. Conversely, multiculturalism can encourage minority ethnic groups to retain their cultural distinctiveness.