Democracy & Participation

What are the criteria for democracy (8)

• The people have influence (direct or indirect) over political decisions

• Government and elected bodies are held accountable to the people

• Government should operate within the rule of law + government is subject to the same laws as the people - independent judiciary

• Elections should be held regularly & there should be universal adult suffrage (voting)

• People should be free to form political parties to stand for elective office

• The transition of power from one government to another must be peaceful

• People should have access to independent information and opinion (media)

• The rights and freedoms for the people should be respected by the govt

What are the characteristics of a representative democracy (6)

• People elect representatives to make political decisions on their behalf

• Regular free and fair elections

• Representative assemblies: parliaments, assemblies and councils

• Govt accountable to the people

• Parties campaign to be able to represent people in government

• Pressure groups operate, representing sections of society

What is pluralism

• Power is widely dispersed among the people and among sections of society - not concentrated in a few hands

• Key feature of a liberal democracy

What is a direct democracy

• People make important political decisions themselves

• This whole system has been used in classical Greece

• Modern: Direct democracy uses initiatives and referendums

• E.g 2016 UK wide Brexit referendum, 2014 Scottish independence referendum

What are the advantages of direct democracy (4)

• Purest form of democracy

  • The peoples voice is heard first hand, unfiltered by an intermediary thereby increasing its legitimacy

• Can avoid delay and deadlock within a political system

  • When representative democracy can’t come to a decision

• Encourages greater individual citizen responsibility for political decision making, leading to greater civic engagement

• Greater turnout as every vote is of equal value compared to the safe seats of representative democracy

  • 84.59% TO - Scottish independence 2014 as opposed to 71.1 in the 2015 GE (the closest GE time wise)

What are the disadvantages of a direct democracy (4)

• It can lead to a ‘tyranny of the majority’ whereby the winning majority simply ignores the interests of the minority and imposes something detrimental on them

  • E.g. EU referendum - ~52% leave, 48% remain - allows for the majority to trample the interests of the minority

  • Every Scottish council voted remain but was over ruled by the rest of the UK

• The people may be to easily swayed by the short term, emotional appeals by charismatic individuals leading to mistakes

  • Most people regret Brexit now: 3-4/2/26 Yougov opinion poll says 64% want to rejoin EU

  • Brexit bus with the misleading slogan “We send the EU £350 million a week - let's fund our NHS instead”

• People may also not be well educated enough on an issue to vote on it

• It overly simplifies complex issues into a un-nuanced binary choice, which can result in flawed political decision-making

What are the advantages of a representative democracy (4)

• In a large modern country is it the only practical way to translate public opinion into political action

• Representatives have the time to deal with a variety of complex matters, leaving the public free to get on with their own lives

• Representatives can develop expertise to deal with the matters the public doesn’t have the time or knowledge to deal with

• Representatives can be held to account for their actions at election time

  • Recall of MP’s act (between elections) by signing a petition

What are the disadvantages of a representative democracy (4)

• It can be difficult to hold a representative to count between elections

• Allowing voters to delegate responsibility to representatives can lead to the public disengaging from social issues and other responsibilities

• Representative bodies can be unrepresentative and may ignore the concerns and needs of minority groups

• Representatives may not act in the best interests of their constituents

What are the different types of representation

• Social representation

• Representing the national interest

• Constituency representation

• Party representation and government representation

• Sectional representation

• Casual representation

Pressure (interest group) representation

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Peaceful transition of power

The UK is remarkably conflict free

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Free elections

• Nearly everyone over 18 can vote

• 16 and 17 year olds able to vote in next general election (2029)

• Little electoral fraud + strong legal safeguards

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Fair elections

Proportional systems in place in:

• Scotland:

  • AMS for Scottish Parliament - Deviation Index of 10

• Wales

• Northern Ireland

• Other devolved and local bodies

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Widespread participation

• Increased participation in pressure groups

  • E.g. Extinction rebellion is now a global movement, made up of 1,080 national, regional and local groups - direct action

  • RSPB over 1 million members - larger membership than most political parties

• 2016 EU referendum

  • Previously non-voting parts of the electorate participated for the first time (those that didn’t vote in the 2015 GE)

  • 72.2% turnout - high

• Increased protest participation

  • Estimated 500,000 people at anti-far right rally on 28/3/26 organised by the together alliance

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of expression

• Press and broadcast media are free of government interference

• Broadcast media maintain political neutrality

• There is free access to the internet

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of association

• No restrictions on legal organisations

• People may protest and instigate public protests - estimated 500,000 people attended anti-far right march on 28/3/26 organised by Together alliance

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of Information

• FOI act 2000 a permanent and prominent feature in civil society and the media - regularly used by interest groups and journalists to scrutinise the actions of public bodies including UK government

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Protection of rights and liberties

• Parliament is sovereign, which means rights are at the mercy of a government with a strong majority in the House of Commons

• Due to the parliament acts 1911/49 allowing the HOC to bypass the HOL

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: The rule of law

• Well understood principle of justice in the UK, a recognised behaviour to compare the CJS to

• Country is signed up to the ECHR + the courts enforce it - As of March ‘26 46.6% of the country are voting for parties that want to leave it so it is under threat

• Citizens and the state subject to the same laws

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Independent judiciary

• The UKSC often rules against the Govt through judicial review

• 13 Feb ‘26: The High court has ruled that the govt banning Palestine action using the terrorism act is unlawful (Although no quashing order was issued and it is still prescribed)

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Limited government/constitutionalism

• Parliament and the courts ensure the government acts within the law

• Human rights act acts as a restraint on the actions of the government

• Constitutional checks exist to limit the power of the government

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Peaceful transition of power

• Short term disputes have arisen when the results aren’t clear such as 2010 and 2017 - leading to some claims of lack of legitimacy

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Free elections

• Some groups such as prisoners and effectively the homeless, are denied the right to vote

• New voter ID laws are believed to have added to the disenfranchised

• House of Lords aren’t elected at all, nor is the monarch

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Fair elections

• First the post system for general elections leads to disproportionate results and many wasted votes

• Governments are often elected on a modest proportion of the popular vote

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Widespread participation

• Voter turnout in GE has been lower than previous elections since 2001

• Non voting share (40.1%) was larger then any party vote share

• Party membership on the decline - especially amongst the young (below levels experienced in the 1950s)

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Freedom of expression

• Has been debate over how independent the BBC is and attempts by politicians to influence its reporting - the selection of the chairman is influenced by the advice of UK govt ministers

• Much ownership of the press is in the hands of large powerful companies - the owner of which tend to have their own political preferences e.g. news Uk owned by Rupert Murdoch that owns The Times, The Sunday Times, and The Sun,

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Freedom of Association

• Govt has the power to ban some groups based on the potentially unfair perception of their activities

  • Labelling Palestine action a terrorist group

• Public meetings and demonstrations can be restricted on the grounds of public order

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Transparency - Freedom of information

• Controversy of how much government information remains confidential and concealed from public gaze e.g. Brexit impact assessments - 57 sets of analyses” of the impact of Brexit on sectors which accounted for 85% of the UK economy.

• You cannot directly table a Freedom of Information (FOI) Act request against the Royal Family or the Royal Household

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: The rule of law

• The monarch is exempt from legal restrictions

• There is statistical evidence to suggest social and economic standing impact severity of sentencing

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic:Independent judiciary

• Ongoing debate on how inclusive and representative the judiciary is

• Dec ‘25: Govt (David Lammy) want to scrap Jury trials to tackle unprecedented delays in the court system

  • Ethnic minorities fell they get a fairer hearing with juries then with magistrates alone - their right to a fair trial under threat

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Limited government/ Constitutionalism

• No codified UK constitution - so limits of government power can be vague

• Parliamentary sovereignty means the government’s powers could be increased without a constitutional safeguard

• The prerogative powers of the prime minister are extensive and arbitrary

What is a pressure group

• A membership based association whose aim is to influence policy making without seeking political power

• Have a role in:

  • Education of the public and govt

  • Representation of minority groups and issues that PPs ignore

  • Legitimisation of democracy by encouraging pluralism (by giving opportunities to citizens to participate in politics)

  • Holding govt to account

What is a causal pressure group

• Seek to promote certain cause or set of beliefs or values

• Seek to promote favourable legislation, prevent unfavourable legislation or simply bring an issue on to the political agenda

What is a sectional pressure group

• Represent a section in society

• Mainly concerned with their own interests

  • Some may be hybrid - concerned with their own interests but their best interests also influence the greater public (e.g. doctors)

• Typically more able to influence govt policy making (insider)

• Can unfairly promote their sectional interests above national interests

  • NFU (National farmers union) lobbied the government to lower its international air quality targets (found in) 2023

  • Campaigners describing it as evidence of “effectively corrupt” relationship

What is an insider pressure group

• Close links with decision makers at all levels

• Given access to early stages of policy making as they are considered important (seen as useful ally’s)

• Consulted by decision-makers and can give expert advice

• Some employ lobbyists whose job it is to gain access to decision-makers

• Raise questions of disproportionate influence

  • Govt can put the interests of groups above the democratic will of the people if insider

• Govt often decides who is insider:

  • If group aligns with govt policy

  • If the group is of a strategic help to govt e.g. BMA

• Corporations can be considered pressure groups as they have huge impact on national economy and can relocate easily - strategically important

  • Facebook hiring Nick Clegg previous DeputyPM

What is an outsider pressure group

• No special position within governing circles - they may prefer independence from govt or govt may not want to associate with them (case for more radical groups)

• Usually causal groups

• Attempt to change legislation by showing the govt that public opinion is on their side - they get public opinion on their side by public campaigning

• Don’t have to use methods that govt would find acceptable

  • Civil disobedience, mass strikes, publicity strikes

• Public order act 2023: Stifles outsider groups in their efforts

Pressure group fact file: Stonewall

• Type: Causal pressure group

• Objectives:

  • Achieving legal equality for LGBTQ+ people

  • Ensuring their safety and inclusion in all areas of life

  • Advocating for rights through campaigns

• Methods:

  • Combination of lobbying research and public campaigns

  • Work directly with law makers and parliamentarians to influence legislation and policy

• Funding:

  • Grants from government bodies in the UK and the foreign commonwealth

  • Also donations and legacies

• Success:

  • Repeal of section 28 where they repealed the ‘promotion’ of homosexuality in schools - 2003

  • The Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013: legalising same-sex marriage in England and Wales (2020 in NI)

  • 4/3/26: Amendment to the crime and policing bill passed by the HoL - Anti LGBTQ+ hate crime looks set to be made an aggravated offence as a result of the 2024 Hold my hand campaign and working alongside peers in the HoL

Pressure group fact file: Migrants Rights network

• Type:

• Objectives:

• Methods:

• Success:

• Failures:

Pressure groups fact file: Liberty

• Type: Outsider causal

• Objectives:

  • Challenge injustice

  • Defend freedom

  • Ensure everyone is treated fairly

• Methods:

  • Litigation: Uses legal cases to challenge and dismantle unjust laws policies and practices that violate peoples rights

• Success:

  • 2 May 2025: Court of Appeal agreed with an earlier ruling of the High Court from May 2024 that then-Home Secretary Suella Braverman did not have the power to create a new law that lowered the threshold of when the police can impose conditions on protests from anything that caused ‘serious disruption’ to anything that was deemed as causing ‘more than minor’ disruption.

• Funding:

  • Charitable trusts and foundations = 68%

  • Membership fee = 18%

  • Transparent about funding

Pressure groups fact file: BMA

• Type: Sectional pressure group

• Objectives:

  • Representing their members by promoting their interests

  • Negotiating for better pay and working conditions

• Methods:

  • Directly lobbies politicians by briefing MPs and peers on medical issues

  • Meeting with ministers and influencing legislation

  • BMA negotiates on behalf of doctors on key issues like pay and conditions 

• Success:

  • 2018 sugar tax

  • 2007 smoking ban

  • Work on pay of consultants and junior doctors

• Funding:

  • BMA is a trade union so membership subscriptions

  • Fundraising

  • Donations

Pressure group Fact file: CBI

• Type:

• Objectives:

• Methods:

• Success:

• Funding:

• Failures:

  • Went from insider to outsider under BoJo during Brexit - “Fuck Business”

  • Govt prioritised getting Brexit done as that’s what the people wanted as opposed to carving out deals beneficial to business

How does the public order act 2023 add to the political participation crisis

What’s in it:

• “To make provision about proceedings by the Secretary of State relating to protest-related activities; to make provision about serious disruption prevention orders”

• New criminal offences targeting protesters such as blocking roads.

• Expanded stop-and-search powers for police.

How is affects crisis:

• Protest discouraged - Criminalising certain tactics makes protest riskier, so citizens may be less willing to take part.

• Participation inequality - Stop-and-search and police discretion can affect marginalised groups. Uneven ability to participate contributes to a lack of democracy

• Reduced pluralism

• Restricting protest limits representation of minority or different viewpoints. Suggests a narrowing of democratic space

• Really harmed groups like Just Stop Oil

What is a think tank

• An organisation whose role it is to undertake research into various aspects of public policy

• Financed by the govt or private sources

• Used by decision makers to inform their policies

What are rights

• Legally protected freedoms (aka civil liberties)

• Absolute, universal and fundamental - can’t be compromised, everyone has them, can’t be removed

• Historically unwritten in the UK but have been guaranteed by the 1988 Human rights act

What are the major milestones in human rights development

• Magna Carta - 1215

• Bill of rights - 1689

• Human rights Act - 1988

• European Convention of Human rights (ECHR) - 1950

• Freedom of Information act (FOI) - 2000

• Equality act - 2010

What was the Magna Carta 1215

• Oldest statement of rights in the UK

• Original purpose was to limit royal power (of King John)

• Foundation of the rights of the citizen

  • e.g. the rights to trail by jury

What was the Bill of rights 1689

• Parliament further restricted the power of the monarch and increased its power

What was the ECHR

• Post WW2

• Drawn up by council of Europe including the UK as one of the signatories

• ECHR set up in Strasbourg to hear cases where people felt their right had been infringed upon in their own countries

• UK citizens could appeal to this court but it was time consuming and expensive

  • Could only be done by the rich or with pressure group backing

What was the Human rights act 1998

• Passed by New Labour in 1988

• Enshrined the ECHR into UK law meaning those rights could be defended in UK courts

Arguments FOR effectiveness of the Human Rights Act

• Rights based culture created: All new legislation must be compliant with the act - Judges can declare earlier acts of parliament incompatible with it

  • e.g. A vs Secretary of the State, part of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 was declared incompatible with parts of the Human rights Act as it permitted the detention of suspected terrorists in a way that discriminated on the ground of nationality - act was amended in 2005

• Places public authorities in the UK under an obligation to treat anyone with fairness, equality and dignity

• Educates citizens about their rights and makes them more high profile in the political system

• Places a duty on the state to investigate deaths where agents of the state such as police - increases democracy as state can be held accountable

  • Used to obtain a new inquest into the Hillsborough disaster

Arguments AGAINST effectiveness of the Human Rights Act

• Not entrenched - could be repealed by a simple act of parliament

  • Almost was by the 2022 Bill of rights bill

  • Parts of HRA would’ve been repealed and not replaced such as the section that requires courts to interpret laws comparability with the ECHR

• Places too much power in the hands of unelected and unaccountable judges, who are able to - “make law”

What is the Freedom of Information act

• Made it easier for opposition MPs, journalists, voters and PGs to ask for information about the government

• Members of the public also gained the right to access any information held about them by public bodies

• Improved transparency and strengthened public trust

What was the Equality Act of 2010

• Brought together earlier pieces of legislation that sought to outlaw discrimination

• Made it illegal to for public bodies, employers, service providers and individuals discriminate on the basis of Age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage, pregnancy, race, religion, and sex(ual orientation)

• Established Formal Equality

  • Important in a pluralist democracy as everyone has equal rights - everyone has equal chance of their demands being heard

Who protects rights in the UK

• Pressure Groups

• Judiciary

• Parliament

How do pressure groups protect rights in the UK

• Care4Calais: deliver refugee aid in Calais, campaign for refugee rights in the UK

  • Has been fighting in legal challenges on behalf of the migrants threatened with deportation to Rwanda - 2023

• Liberty defeating Government appeal as court rules protest rules unlawful - May ‘25

  • Pressure groups can stand in when the parliament fails to protect people’s rights to protest and hold govt accountable

How does the Judiciary protect rights in the UK

Judicial review

• Judge reviews the lawfulness of a decision or action made by a public body

• Have the power to ensure those in power have not acted beyond the authority given to them by the law (ultra vires)

• They also check wether a law/action is Inline with the HRA

Arguments for:

• Used by pressure groups: Liberty defeats government appeal as court rules anti-protest laws are unlawful - May ‘25

  • Government ruling against the state for its rules that encroach the right to freedom

• Vital means in defending citizens’ rights, enabling the legality of govt actions to be scrutinised

Arguments against:

• Places too much power in the hands of unelected and unaccountable judges, who are able to - “make law”

• April ‘25: Supreme Court rules that the term sex in the 2010 equality act refers to biological sex at birth

  • Requires organisation to review their policies and practices to ensure they comply with legal position

  • Has led to Trans exclusion - Trans girl can no longer join “Girlguiding” (2/12/25) as organisation forced to change rules in compliance with new ruling

How does parliament and government defend rights

• Introducing legislation that protects the rights of citizens e.g. same sex marriage legalised in NI by the UK govt in Jan 2020

• Parliament can prevent govt from encroaching on HR by voting down bills - HOL

• Public Order Act ‘23: Protects people’s right to movement

How does parliament and govt NOT defend Human rights

• Starmer urges Europes leaders to curb ECHR to halt rise of far right - 9/2/25

  • Leaders should ‘go further’ in modernising the interpretation of the ECHR to prevent asylum seekers using to it avoid deportation

  • Goes against right to claim asylum in any country that signed the 1951 convention (UK did) + can result in countries abandoning the worlds most vulnerable

  • PM accused of diluting protections to pander to the right

• Conservatives and reform want to leave ECHR

• Jury trials scrapped for crimes with sentences of less than 3 years in order to tackle unprecedented delays in court system - Dec ‘25

  • Evidence shows that ethnic minorities believe they will get a fairer trail with juries - threatens right to fairer trails

• Liberty defeats government appeal as court rules anti-protest laws are unlawful

  • Braverman attempted to use secondary legislation to change law which has already been rejected by parliament as it encroaches on right to protect

How have collective rights been in contention with individual rights

• Freedom of expression vs The right of minorities not to be subjected to hate speech

  • Lucy Connolly jailed for 31 months after urging followers on X to set fire to hotel housing asylum seekers - Oct ‘24

• Right to privacy vs right of the community to be protected from terrorism

  • Ministers give more UK public bodies power to access phone data - 2020

• Right to protest (+ freedom of speech) Vs the right to be free from disruption + safety of the public

  • Anti-monarchist advocates have said they were threatened with arrests when they planned to protest a royal procession in Windsor - Dec ‘25

  • Conditions were put in place to stop the group using their loud hailer whilst the horses were riding past in close proximity