Democracy & Participation

What are the criteria for democracy

• The people have influence (direct or indirect) over political decisions

• Government and elected bodies are held accountable to the people

• Government should operate within the rule of law + government is subject to the same laws as the people - independent judiciary

• Elections should be held regularly & there should be universal adult suffrage (voting)

• People should be free to form political parties to stand for elective office

• The transition of power from one government to another must be peaceful

• People should have access to independent information and opinion (media)

• The rights and freedoms for the people should be respected by the govt

What are the characteristics of a representative democracy

• People elect representatives to make political decisions on their behalf

• Regular free and fair elections

• Representative assemblies: parliaments, assemblies and councils

• Govt accountable to the people

• Parties campaign to be able to represent people in government

• Pressure groups operate, representing sections of society

What is pluralism

• Power is widely dispersed among the people and among sections of society - not concentrated in a few hands

• Key feature of a liberal democracy

What are the features of a direct democracy

• People make important political decisions themselves

• This whole system has been used in classical Greece

• Modern: Direct democracy uses initiatives and referendums

• E.g 2016 UK wide referendum

What are the advantages of direct democracy

• Purest form of democracy

  • The peoples voice is heard first hand, unfiltered by an intermediary thereby increasing its legitimacy

• Can avoid delay and deadlock within a political system

  • When representative democracy can’t come to a decision

• Encourages greater individual citizen responsibility for political decision making, leading to greater civic engagement

• Greater turnout as every vote is of equal value compared to the safe seats of representative democracy

What are the disadvantages of a direct democracy

• It can lead to a ‘tyranny of the majority’ whereby the winning majority simply ignores the interests of the minority and imposes something detrimental on them

  • E.g. EU referendum - ~52% leave, 48% remain - allows for the majority to trample the interests of the minority

• The people may be to easily swayed by the short term, emotional appeals by charismatic individuals

  • People may also not be well educated enough on an issue to vote on it

• It overly simplifies complex issues into a un-nuanced binary choice, which can result in flawed political decision-making

What are the advantages of a representative democracy

• In a large modern country is it the only practical way to translate public opinion into political action

• Representatives have the time to deal with a variety of complex matters, leaving the public free to get on with their own lives

• Representatives can develop expertise to deal with the matters the public doesn’t have the time or knowledge to deal with

• Representatives can be held to account for their actions at election time

What are the disadvantages of a representative democracy

• It can be difficult to hold a representative to count between elections

• Allowing voters to delegate responsibility to representatives can lead to the public disengaging from social issues and other responsibilities

• Representative bodies can be unrepresentative and may ignore the concerns and needs of minority groups

• Representatives may not act in the best interests of their constituents

What are the different types of representation

• Social representation

• Representing the national interest

• Constituency representation

• Party representation and government representation

• Sectional representation

• Casual representation

Pressure (interest group) representation

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Peaceful transition of power

The UK is remarkably conflict free

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Free elections

• Nearly everyone over 18 can vote

• 16 and 17 year olds able to vote in next general election (2029)

• Little electoral fraud + strong legal safeguards

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Fair elections

• Proportional systems in place in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and other devolved and local bodies

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Widespread participation

• Increased participation in pressure groups

  • E.g. Extinction rebellion is now a global movement, made up of 1,080 national, regional and local groups - direct action

  • RSPB over 1 million members - larger membership than most political parties

• 2016 EU referendum

  • Previously non-voting parts of the electorate participated for the first time (those that didn’t vote in the 2015 GE)

  • 72.2% turnout - high

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of expression

• Press and broadcast media are free of government interference

• Broadcast media maintain political neutrality

• There is free access to the internet

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of association

• No restrictions on legal organisations

• People may protest and instigate public protests

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Freedom of Information

• FOI act 2000 a permanent and prominent feature in civil society and the media - regularly used by interest groups and journalists to scrutinise the actions of public bodies including UK government

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Protection of rights and liberties

• Parliament is sovereign, which means rights are at the mercy of a government with a strong majority in the House of Commons

• Due to the parliament acts 1911/49 allowing the HOC to bypass the HOL

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: The rule of law

• Well understood principle of justice in the UK, a recognised behaviour to compare the CJS to

• Country is signed up to the ECHR + the courts enforce it

• Citizens and the state subject to the same laws

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Independent judiciary

• The UKSC often rules against the Govts through judicial review

• In a landmark 2019 ruling, the UKSC unanimously declared Boris Johnsons’ parliament for 5 weeks to unlawful, finding it interfered with parliamentary sovereignty and accountability without reasonable justification

Evidence that the UK is Democratic: Limited government/constitutionalism

• Parliament and the courts ensure the government acts within the law

• Human rights act acts as a restraint on the actions of the government

• Constitutional checks exist to limit the power of the government

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Peaceful transition of power

• Short term disputes have arisen when the results aren’t clear such as 2010 and 2017 - leading to some claims of lack of legitimacy

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Free elections

• Some groups such as prisoners and effectively the homeless, are denied the right to vote

• New voter ID laws are believed to have added to the disenfranchised

• House of Lords aren’t elected at all, nor is the monarch

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Fair elections

• First the post system for general elections leads rot disproportionate results and many wasted votes

• Governments are often elected on a modest proportion of the popular vote

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Widespread participation

• Voter turnout in GE has been lower than previous elections since 2001

• Non voting share (40.1%) was larger then any party vote share

• Party membership on the decline - especially amongst the young (below levels experienced in the 1950s)

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Freedom of expression

• Has been debate over how independent the BBC is and attempts by politicians to influence its reporting

• Much ownership of the press is in the hands of large powerful companies - the owner of which tend to have their pwn political preferences e.g. news international

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Freedom of Association

• Govt has the power to ban some groups based on the potentially unfair perception of their activities

  • Labelling Palestine action a terrorist group

• Public meetings and demonstrations can be restricted on the grounds of public order

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Transparency - Freedom of information

• Ongoing controversy of how much government information remains confidential and concealed from public gaze e.g. Brexit impact assessments

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: The rule of law

• The monarch is exempt from legal restrictions

• There is statistical evidence to suggest social and economic standing impact severity of sentencing

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic:Independent judiciary

Ongoing debate on how inclusive and representative the judiciary is

Evidence that the UK isn’t Democratic: Limited government/ Constitutionalism

• No codified UK constitution - so limits of government power can be vague

• Parliamentary sovereignty means the government’s powers could be increased without a constitutional safeguard

• The prerogative powers of the prime minister are extensive and arbitrary

What is a pressure group

• A membership based association whose aim is to influence policy making without seeking political power

• Have a role in:

  • Education of the public and govt

  • Representation of minority groups and issues that PPs ignore

  • Legitimisation of democracy by encouraging pluralism (by giving opportunities to citizens to participate in politics)

  • Holding govt to account

What is a causal pressure group

• Seek to promote certain cause or set of beliefs or values

• Seek to promote favourable legislation, prevent unfavourable legislation or simply bring an issue on to the political agenda

What is a sectional pressure group

• Represent a section in society

• Mainly concerned with their own interests

  • Some may be hybrid - concerned with their own interests but their best interests also influence the greater public (e.g. doctors)

• Typically more able to influence govt policy making (insider)

• Can unfairly promote their sectional interests above national interests

  • NFU (National farmers union) lobbied the government to lower its international air quality targets (found in) 2023

  • Campaigners describing it as evidence of “effectively corrupt” relationship

What is an insider pressure group

• Close links with decision makers at all levels

• Given access to early stages of policy making as they are considered important (seen as useful ally’s)

• Consulted by decision-makers and can give expert advice

• Some employ lobbyists whose job it is to gain access to decision-makers

• Raise questions of disproportionate influence

  • Govt can put the interests of groups above the democratic will of the people if insider

• Govt often decides who is insider:

  • If group aligns with govt policy

  • If the group is of a strategic help to govt e.g. BMA

• Corporations can be considered pressure groups as they have huge impact on national economy and can relocate easily - strategically important

  • Facebook hiring Nick Clegg previous DeputyPM

What is an outsider pressure group

• No special position within governing circles - they may prefer independence from govt or govt may not want to associate with them (case for more radical groups)

• Usually causal groups

• Attempt to change legislation by showing the govt that public opinion is on their side - they get public opinion on their side by public campaigning

• Don’t have to use methods that govt would find acceptable

  • Civil disobedience, mass strikes, publicity strikes

• Public order act 2023: Stifles outsider groups in their efforts

Pressure group fact file: Stonewall

• Type: Causal pressure group

• Objectives:

  • Achieving legal equality for LGBTQ+ people

  • Ensuring their safety and inclusion in all areas of life

  • Advocating for rights through campaigns

• Methods:

  • Combination of lobbying research and public campaigns

  • Work directly with law makers and parliamentarians to influence legislation and policy

• Funding:

  • Grants from government bodies in the UK and the foreign commonwealth

  • Also donations and legacies

• Success:

  • Repeal of section 28 where they repealed the ‘promotion’ of homosexuality in schools - 2003

  • The Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013: legalising same-sex marriage in England and Wales (2020 in NI)

Pressure group fact file: Migrants Rights network

• Type:

• Objectives:

• Methods:

• Success:

• Failures:

Pressure groups fact file: Liberty

• Type: Outsider causal

• Objectives:

  • Challenge injustice

  • Defend freedom

  • Ensure everyone is treated fairly

• Methods:

  • Litigation: Uses legal cases to challenge and dismantle unjust laws policies and practices that violate peoples rights

• Success:

  • 2 May 2025: Court of Appeal agreed with an earlier ruling of the High Court from May 2024 that then-Home Secretary Suella Braverman did not have the power to create a new law that lowered the threshold of when the police can impose conditions on protests from anything that caused ‘serious disruption’ to anything that was deemed as causing ‘more than minor’ disruption.

• Funding:

  • Charitable trusts and foundations = 68%

  • Membership fee = 18%

  • Transparent about funding

Pressure groups fact file: BMA

• Type: Sectional pressure group

• Objectives:

  • Representing their members by promoting their interests

  • Negotiating for better pay and working conditions

• Methods:

  • Directly lobbies politicians by briefing MPs and peers on medical issues

  • Meeting with ministers and influencing legislation

  • BMA negotiates on behalf of doctors on key issues like pay and conditions 

• Success:

  • 2018 sugar tax

  • 2007 smoking ban

  • Work on pay of consultants and junior doctors

• Funding:

  • BMA is a trade union so membership subscriptions

  • Fundraising

  • Donations

Pressure group Fact file: CBI

• Type:

• Objectives:

• Methods:

• Success:

• Funding:

• Failures:

  • Went from insider to outsider under BoJo during Brexit - “Fuck Business”

  • Govt prioritised getting Brexit done as that’s what the people wanted as opposed to carving out deals beneficial to business

How does the public order act 2023 add to the political participation crisis

What’s in it:

• “To make provision about proceedings by the Secretary of State relating to protest-related activities; to make provision about serious disruption prevention orders”

• New criminal offences targeting protesters such as blocking roads.

• Expanded stop-and-search powers for police.

How is affects crisis:

• Protest discouraged - Criminalising certain tactics makes protest riskier, so citizens may be less willing to take part.

• Participation inequality - Stop-and-search and police discretion can affect marginalised groups. Uneven ability to participate contributes to a lack of democracy

• Reduced pluralism

• Restricting protest limits representation of minority or different viewpoints. Suggests a narrowing of democratic space