Chapter 20, 21, 22

Origin of Industrial Revolution

- Originated in 1750
- Started in Britain

Factors that led to the start of Industrial Rev

- 18th century agricultural revolution: increase in food production, increased opportunity to buy manufactured goods, and led to a surplus of labor
- Central banking and credits

The risk of industrial entrepeneurship

- Business was ruthless and pushed competitive nature of Britain

Why was GB the birth place of the Industrial Rev

- geography: access to coal and iron ore
- it was a small nation which made transportation much easier (road, rivers, and canals linked major center of industry)
- The government had less regulations on private entrepreneurship
- ample supply of foreign and domestic markets: merchant marine system (brought cheaply made clothes to the americas, africa, and the east)

Inventions from the Cottage Industry

- Cottage industry sparked growth of the textile industry
- Flying shuttle: doubled output
- Spinning Jenny: increased yarn production
- Water frame: spinning machine
- Power loom

Results of the Industrial Rev

- new sources of energy
- emergence of machine labor
- use of factories
- bad working conditions
- mass movement from countryside to urban areas
- rise in a wealthy industrial middle class + a huge industrial working class

Effect of The Steam Engine

- revolutionized production of cotton goods
- spread the factory system
- fired by coal and din't need a river

Steam Engine

- result of need for more efficient pumps to eliminate water seepage from deep mines (which had replaced wood as a new source of energy)
- The Newcomen steam pump emerged in 1712 but was repaired by James Watt and made much more efficient

Iron Industry

- large resource of iron ore in Britain
- "puddling" - coke is used to burn away impurities from crude iron in order to make a stronger iron
- growth of iron industry leads to the production of cheaper steel which encourages industrial development

Railroads

- revolutionized transportation
- lead to the creation of new tech, jobs, and industrial opportunities
- Railroads were present in Germany in the 1500 and came to Britain in the 1600

Turnpike Trusts

funded new roads and canals

Industrial Factory

- workers had no ownership risk and made a wage to do a job
- maximization of efficiency
- regular hours and shifts
- adults were punished for infractions (held dismissal over their head), children were beat

Richard Trevithick

created the first modern railway

George Stephenson

created the first modern railway

Affects of Railroads

- increase in the coal and iron industry
- led to British supremacy in engineering
- new growth of middle-class investors in joint stock companies
- more markets, factories, and productivity
- expanded economy

New values

- disciplined path
- no more laziness and wastefulness
- hardships in life paved way for future joy
- Parallel with ideas of Evangelical and Methodist Church
- New values ingrained in future generations

First Industrial Fair

- Kensington, London in the Crystal Palace
- Symbolic of Great Britain's success

Spread of Industrialization

- industry spread from Gb to the european continent and USA
- first: belgium, france, and german states
- after 1850: spread across Europe and world

What was limiting the rest of Europe

- french revolution + napoleon era disrupted trade and led to social and political instability
- Britain had more advanced tech
- the continent had worse roads and river transit
- they had higher good costs and guild restrictions
- their entrepeneurs abided by more traditional business values

Britain's attempt to stay ahead

- Britain attempted to stop the spread of their inventions through legislation
- This failed

John Cockerill

established industrial plant in Belgium; stole British tech ideas

Continent catching up

- France and German states created technical schools
- Belgium and France saw a new generation of mechanics
- Continental govs were more involved in industrialization and funded education and advancements
- railroad construction began in continental europe
- govs used tariffs to protect industries from British competition

Friedrich List

(1789-1846)
- "National system of political economy"
- advocated for rapid industrialization to strengthen a nation _ protective tariffs are necessary

Banks

- Societe Generale, Barique de Belgique: Belgian banks invested in railroads, mining, and heavy industry
- Credit Mobilier (france), Darmstadt Bank (German), Kreditansalt (Austria): bought shares in new industries which became essential to continental industrialization

Centers of continental industrialization

- Belgium, France, and German States
- France was the continental leader in the cotton industry (but was still behind GB)
- Belgium had the most modern cotton manufacturing system by mid-1840s
- Germany was least industrialized compared to the other two
- continent had much lower efficiency compared to GB

Continental Industry

- more dispersed cotton mills and a less uniform cotton industry
- the steam engine was primarily used in mining and metallurgy but a domestic market for steam engines emerged in the 1820s
- Iron + cotton industry led the continent

Industrial Rev in the US

- 1800: US was very Agrarian but pop is increasing rapidly
- Industrialization came from immigrants from GB
- US country is much bigger which made transport hard but meant more land and labor
- made use of the steamboat for transport on rivers, lakes, and coastal waters to decrease shipping costs.

Samuel Slator

- established the first textile factory in the US
- used water power spinning machine

The Railroad in the US

- by 1860 the US had more than 27000 miles of rail
- brought new ideas, goods, and services to new regions of the USA
- Greater access to resource

Limiting the Spread of Industrialization

- Eastern Europe did not see the same level of industrialization
- i.e Russia remained under serfdom and agrarian
- Britain also attempted to prevent modern industry to their suppliers of raw materials so they could keep a monopoly on the product

US Workforce

- made up of women and European immigrants
- it was a very capital intensive pattern vs. Britain's labor intensive economy

19th century population

- large population growth
- better records of population with the use of regular census
- decrease in both birthrate and death-rate
- less famine, epidemics, and war + more food
- much more of the population as involved with manufacturing, mining, and building
- unindustrialized country became overcrowded

Irish Famine

* peasants rented land from British and lived in poverty but mostly survived off Potato
* They saw an increase in population until...
* In 1845 the potato crop was hit by a fungus (Blight) causing a massive famine in the Irish population
* More than 2 million died and more than 2 million emigrated the US and Britain

Cities in the 19th century

- cities were manufacturing and industry capital
- population of london increased by 1 million in 50 years
- Living conditions: miserable, middle class movement into suburbs, most unfortunate lived in overcrowded cellars
- Bad sanitary conditions with death rates that exceded birth rates

Food market

- became very fraudulent and exploitive towards consumers

James Kay

British reformer in favor of better working conditions for laborers

Edwin Chadwick

* obsessed with eliminating poverty and squaler in the metropolitan areas
* appointed to gov investigatory commisions: secretary of the poor law commission
* "report on the condition of the laboring population of Great Britain"
* wanted to eliminate environmental issues the laborers faced
* Supported by middle class afraid of cholera and the city authorities + wealthy

National Board of Health

- created by the British Government following Edwin Chadwick's activism
- helped establish modern sanitary system

Industrial Middle Class

* bougeoisie expanded to include people in commerce, banking, law, medicine, government offices, and crafts people

New Industrial Entrepeneurs

* constructed factories + purchases machines
* lots of opportunities and risk
* businesses lived and died at a very fast pace
* Quakers + other religious minorities were more involved in entrepeneurship along with British aristocrats
* New generation of entrepeneurs in the 1850s came from the profession and industrial middle class
* small businesses flourished
* wealthiest of the industrial middle class merged with the old elite

Workers

* industrial workers didn’t make up a lot of the working class in 1850s
* mostly artisans and crafts people who worked in guilds (which were slowly losing power)
* luxury craftspeople: development of coach building and clockworks
* servants also made up a large percent of urban workers

Industrial working conditions

* 12-16 hr days, 6 days a week
* no security of employment or minimum wage
* Cotton Mills had high temps
* Coal Mines had frequent cave-ins, explosions, and fumes which resulted in deformed bodies and ruined lungs
* women and children were employed and children were exploited as cheap labor

Labor Laws

* legislation first only covered children working in textile factories and mines, leaving those working in workshops or non factory trades unprotected
* By 1830 women and children made up of 2/3 of cotton workers
* Factory act (1833) - decrease in child labor which were just replaced by women
* Ten hours act in 1847 reduced work day for kids and women and coal mines eliminated employment of young boys and women in mines
* Laws against excessive work for women in 1855 in textile factories and mines which led to new family roles: men primarily worked while women did domestic duties

Living standard

* wealth gap widened
* high unemployment, social tension, and inflation
* Towns were very affected by economic hardship

Labor Groups/Unions

* wanted decent wages and better working conditions
* British Combination Acts outlawed the association of workers but trade unions still came to be
* tried to limit entry to their industry and gain more benefits from employers
* They would strike
* The Amalgamated Society of engineers got unemployment benefits
* Luddites: craftspeople against machines, failed

Robert Owen

* led attempt to make national unions
* created the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834
* helped coordinate a general strike against the 8 hour work day
* Union fell apart quickly
* setup succesful model factory town in New Lanark, Scotland but failed to do same in New Harmony, Indiana.

Chartism

* wanted political democracy
* male suffrage for all,
* payments and annual sessions for mps.
* 2 petitions to parliament were rejected

Peace Settlement of Vienna results

* restoration of Louis XVIII in France
* Prussia and Austria allowed to keep some polish territories
* containment of france
* Prussia is expanded
* Germanic state created
* Austria given control of italian provinces

Edmund Burke

* prominent conservative
* 1729-1797
* *reflections on the revolution in france*
* society is a contract

Joseph de Maistre

* 1753-1821
* monarch divinely sanctioned
* obedience favored

The Concert of Europe

Four congresses (1818-1822)

1st: 1818-1822 @ Aix-la-chapelle: withdrew armies from france and added france to the quadruple alliance

2nd: 1820 deal w/ revolution in spain (Ferdinand VIII) and Italy (Ferdinand I king of naples + sicily). Metternich proposed expulsion from european alliance for those who partake in rebellions + to send armies to restore legitimate monrachs (Briain refused)

3rd: 1821 @ Laibach to authorize Austrian troops to be sent to Naples and france to invade spain to restore the monarchs

Simon Bolivar

* “the liberator”
* liberated venezuela and colombia

Jose de San Martin

* liberated Argentina, chile, peru from spanish authority
* joined Bolivar to crush last spanish army in 1824
* Mexico, central america, and brazil were also independent.
* while the european powers wanted to reinstate spanish control, Britain and the US worked to stop the intervention (monroe doctrine + british navy)

Treaty of Adrianople

* 1820
* conclusion of Russian-Turkish war
* Greek independence (1830)
* Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia

Great Britain early 1800s

* rule of the tories
* Peterloo Massacre
* Minor reforms

David Ricardo

* 1772-1823
* comparative costs/advantage
* basis for most economists’ belief in free trade today
* *Principles of political economy*
* “iron law of wages” : minimum wage laws are pointless

John Stuart Mill

* *On liberty:* protect individual freedoms from the gov
* *Subjection of women:* inspired by the failures of the voting reform bill of 1867 - believed women were equal to men

Nationalism

* part of a community
* allied w/ liberalism
* emerged from french rev
* threatened europe w/ a change in power balance (united germany or italy and independent hungary

Congress of Vienna

* 1814
* goal: restore stability
* France joined a quadruple alliance between GB, Austria, Prussia, and Russia
* Leader of congress was Austrian foreign minister: Prince Klemens von Metternich (conservative)

Conservatism

* obedience, organized religion, no revolution
* community above all else
* supported by monarchs, bureaucracies, landowners, and the church

Henri de Saint Simon

1760-1825

* in *Nouveau Christianisme* proposed model communities to create a brotherhood of man based on scientific organization of industry and society
* ideas on equality women

Charles Fourier

1772-1838

* model communities: phalansteries
* rotating labor
* couldn’t get it funded
* failed communities in France and USA

Frances Wright

1795-1852

* disciple of robert owen
* set up model town in Nashoba, Tennessee for freed slaves; failed
* continue to work for abolition and women’s rights

Louis Blanc

1813-1882

* *The Organization of Work*
* claimed competition was source of suffering
* proposed government financed workshops run and owned by workers which would produce foods for public sale

Zoe Gatti de Gamand

1806-1854

* Belgian feminist and education reformer who adopted Fourier’s views and created her own phalanstery

Flora Tristan

1803-1844

* proposed absolute equality for women and a synthesis of socialism and feminism
* *workers union*

July Ordinances

1830

* issued by Charles X
* Suspended liberty of the press
* appointed a new Conseillers d’Etat
* dissolved the chamber of deputies
* excluded the commercial middle class from future elections by lowering the electorare

July Revolution

Day 1: Garde Royale: protect key locations in paris, 21 civilians killed in riots, tricolor becomes the rallying flag + symbolic embolism of revolution.

Day 2: opposition: attempts to convince the king to withdraw the July Ordinances: fail

Day 3: ransacking and restoration of order: the tuileries, palace, louvre, and palais de justice, ransacked by mobs. order eventually restored as politicans setup a provisional government

Charles X abdicated on August 2nd

King Louis Philipe

1830-1848

* Duke of Orleans became constitutional king
* favored by the upper bourgeoisie and upper middle class who wanted limited reform
* parisian working class were dissatisfied with the king
* Party of Movement: Bourgeoisie members of the chamber of deputies (led by Adolphe Thiers) who favored ministerial responsibility, active foreign policy, and limited french expansion
* Party of Resistance: led by Francois Guizot, believed no further changes needed - supported the king
* france expanded rapidly industrialy

Greek Revolts

1821

* revolt against ottoman turkish masters which became a noble cause across Europe
* in 1827 a combined British and French fleet defeated a large ottoman armada
* Russia declared war on the ottoman empire and invaded Maldavia and Wallachia
* Russia, France, and Britain were given the power to decide the independence of Greece

Great Britain early 1800s

* governed by the aristocratic landowning classes
* elections in the HOC was unequal
* Tories dominated till 1830
* Corn Laws were passed as a response to low agricultural prices: high tariffs on foreign grain which made bread prices higher for the working class which caused mass protests
* Squadron of cavalry attacked a crowd @ st. peter’s field in Manchester in 1819 (Peterloo Massacre) caused parliament to further repress public meeting

France early 1800s

* Louis XVIII restored the Bourbon Monarchy
* Accepted Napoleon’s civil code
* made a bicameral legislative assembly with the chamber of peers (chosen by king) and the chamber of deputies (chosen by electorate)
* Ultra-royalists and liberals both disliked his moderateness

Charles X

* ultraroyalist french king
* gave indemnity to aristocrats
* tried to respread catholocism
* liberal opposed and he was forced to accept that the king’s ministers were responsible to the legislature
* he violated which caused protests so he dissolved the legislature

Italy early 1800s

* congress of vienna established 9 italian states: piedmont, kingdom of 2 sicilies, the papal states, lombardy, venetia, etc.
* Italy was mostly under Austrian domination
* the states somethered any liberal or nationalist sentiment

Spain early 1800s

* Ferdinand VII restored the Bourbon dynasty to spain
* agreed to observe liberal constitution of 1812 which created an elected parliamentary assembly: Cortes
* King went back on his promise which caused army officers, upper middle class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt
* A french army forced the revolutionary government out of spain and restored Ferdinand

Germanic confederation

* layed out in the congress of vienna
* had the federal diet as the only central organ which needed unanimous vote and was therefore powerless
* Germans favored liberalism and looked to Prussia for leadership

King Frederick William III

* king of prussia during the Napoleonic era
* followed Chief Ministers Baron Heinrich Von Stein and Baron Karl Von Hardening
* instituted reforms: abolition of serfdom, municipal self governance, expansion of schools and universal military conscription to make a national army
* Prussia was still absolutist but had liberal movements driven by university professors and students

Burschenschaften

* student societies dedicated to making a free and united Germany
* inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
* burned books by conservative authors at an assembly at Wartburg Castle in 1817 and assasinated a playwright
* Metternich reacted by making the diet of the germanic confederation write the karlsbad decrees of \`1819 which closed the students societies, censored the press, and placed universities under close supervision

Russia early 1800s

* rural, agricultural, and autocratic
* Alexander I: initially wanted reform and relaxed censorship, freed prisoners, and reformed education. But refused a constitution and did not abolish serfdom
* Northern Union: young aristocrats who had served in napoleonic wars + intellectuals who wanted more freedom in their universities: favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom
* Confusion in 1825: Nicholas took the throne instead of Constantine which caused rebellion

Nicholas

* Russian king
* crushed revolt
* strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret police
* Political police: 3rd section of the tsar’s chancellery were given power over Russian life - deported suspicious people and reported to the tsar

Liberalism

* developing industrial middle class
* people should be free from restraint
* Economic liberalism: lasseiz-faire - gov should only defend, police, and construct
* Politically: equality and freedom of assembly, speech, etc. Seperation of church and state, representative assembly and constitutional monarchy.
* limited suffrage: men w/ property

Thomas Malthus

* *Essay on the principles of population*
* population grows faster than food means overpopulation and starvation are inevitable

David Ricardo

* *Principles of political economy*
* iron law of wages - increasing pop means lower wages
* no need for a minimum wage

1830 Revolts

1830

* Belgian independence from Dutch recognized
* Leopold of Saxe-Coburg installed as king
* Metternich’s Austrian Troops crush revolt in Northern Italian States

1831

* Polish revolt quelled by Russians after they fail to gain support from French and British

Reform in Great Britain

* 1830 elections put whigs in power
* Reform Act (1837) - expansion of suffrage to industrial middle class, redistributed voting distrits (for fairness)
* Poor law: (1834) - creation of more poor houses for working poor but make them miserable to force them to work
* Repealed corn laws (1846) - anti corn law league abolish import duties on cereal grain because it meant increased bread prices for working class. Supported by Tory Leader (Robert Peel)
* British evangelicals set up sunday schools to improve working class children - this idea of teaching the working class how to be better became a big theme throughout europe

1848 Revolutions

* France suffered a severe industrial and agricultural depression which led to hardship for lower middle class, workers, and peasants
* 1/3 of workers in paris were unemployed and government refused to extend suffrage
* Republicans, socialists, and the upper middle class came together under Adolphe Thiers to advocate for the dismissal of Guizot
* They held 70 political banquets to get around political rally bans
* The gov tried to outlaw the banquets so students and workers put up barricades in paris and Louis Phillipe fled to Britain

Results of the 1848 revs

* A provisional gov was created by republicans (including socialist Louis Blanc) which was ordered to convene a constituents assembly elected by universal manhood suffrage
* created national workshops run by workers which cost too much - shut down which led to revolts where many died and were imprisoned (deported to algeria)
* new gov split between moderate republicans (support from most of france) and radical republicans (support from parisian working class)
* new constitution ratified to create “the second republic”: made a unicameral legislature elected by male suffrage for 3 years
* president elected for 4 years - Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected

Central Europe in mid 1800s

* Agricultural depression
* Frederick WIlliam IV (prussian) abolished censorship, make a new constitution, and is supportive of a united germany
* Frankfurt Assembly: first freely elected parliament in the German states where educated middle class delegates deliberated Grossdeutsch vs. Kleindeutsch (austria withdrew so kleideutsch reigned supreme)

Growth of the US

* Alexander Hamilton - federalist (favored strong central govt - pro british)
* Thomas Jefferson - republican (fearful of centralization pro french)
* War of 1812 ended federalists and increased nationalism
* John Marshall
* Andrew Jackson - democrat, expansion of suffrage (white males), new penal systems

New Police

* 1st half of 1800s: large increase in property crimes
* France (1878) introduces the blue uniform, cane, saber
* British feared oppression: resisted civil and military policy, unpaid constable proved innefective
* 1829 introduced 3,000 uniformed officers (Bobbies) to london
* Berlin: Schitzmannschaft - similar to london police but more militarized and driven by politics

Prisons

* imprisonment replaces capital punishment
* British exportation of criminals to australia slowed
* Motivation for incarceration: reform and rehab
* French and British observe prisons in the US
* Auburn Prison, NY: daywork cooperative but seperated at night
* Walnut Street Prison, Philadelphia: separated into individual cells
* Petite Roquette, France and Pentonville, Britain: prisoners wore leather masks during exercise, solitary confinement
* increase prison population meant increased costs

Romanticism

late 18th century - early 19th century

* balance of reason w/ emotion, the rebellion of thought
* poetry is a big part of it - Percy Bysshe Shelley
* individualism and sentiment, defy the world and sacrifice for a great cause
* pantheism: god is in nature

Johann Wolfgange Von Goethe

1749-1831

* greatest genius of modern german literature
* romantic who became a classicist (politically conservative)
* influenced literature, art, music, drama, poetry
* *The Sorrow of the Young Werther:* tragic love story. themes: for self, nature of love, and suicide

Thomas Carlyle

1795-1881

* *The french revolution: a history*
* role of the hero in fiction

Fairytales

* The Brothers Grimm: local fairytales in Germany
* Hans Christen Anderson (Denmark): fairytales, myth, heroism

Sir Walter Scotts

* *Ivanhoe*
* best-seller, evocation of the conflicts between Saxons and Normany

Hungarian Revolts

* hungarian liberals under louis kossuth wanted a commonwealth status with their own legislature
* Demonstrations in Buda, PRague, and Vienna led to Metternich’s dismissal
* revolutionary forces took control of the Capital in Vienna and called a constituents assembly to make a liberal constitution
* Hungary was granted a legislature, national army, and control over foreign policy and budget
* Francis Joseph I worked to put down Kussoth’s forces with the help of Nicholas I of Russia.

Czech Rebellion

* Czechs in bohemia also wanted their own government
* at first Emperor Ferdinand I made concessions but in 1848 a military force under General Alfred WIndischgratz suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague
* When a minister for war was killed by a mob in Vienna, the General took it as an opportunity to crush the rebels completely
* Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of Franz Joseph I

Italian rev

* Giuseppe Mazzini became leader of Italy’s risorgimento who founded “young italy” whose goal was to created a united republic
* *The Duties of Man* urged italians to dedicated their lives to the Italian nation
* Cristina Belgioso worked to unify Italy but was pursued by Austrian authorities, she started a newspaper in paris in support of the unification
* Italian states revolted in 1848 starting w/ sicily as rulers granted constitutions
* Citizens in lombardy and venetia rebelled against austrian overlords
* Venetians created a republic of venice
* King of Piedmont: Charles Albert assumed leadership in the war of liberation from austrian control
* Austrians reestablished control and counterrevolutionary forces prevailed as the french helped pope pius ix regain control of rome
* only piedmont kep its liberal constitution

Gothic literature

* Edgar Allan Poe
* Mary Shelley: *Frankenstein*
* had historical elements