Chapter 20, 21, 22

Origin of Industrial Revolution

• Originated in 1750

• Started in Britain

Factors that led to the start of Industrial Rev

• 18th century agricultural revolution: increase in food production, increased opportunity to buy manufactured goods, and led to a surplus of labor

• Central banking and credits

The risk of industrial entrepeneurship

- Business was ruthless and pushed competitive nature of Britain

Why was GB the birth place of the Industrial Rev

• geography: access to coal and iron ore

• it was a small nation which made transportation much easier (road, rivers, and canals linked major center of industry)

• The government had less regulations on private entrepreneurship

• ample supply of foreign and domestic markets: merchant marine system (brought cheaply made clothes to the americas, africa, and the east)

Inventions from the Cottage Industry

• Cottage industry sparked growth of the textile industry

• Flying shuttle: doubled output

• Spinning Jenny: increased yarn production

• Water frame: spinning machine

• Power loom

Results of the Industrial Rev

• new sources of energy

• emergence of machine labor

• use of factories

• bad working conditions

• mass movement from countryside to urban areas

• rise in a wealthy industrial middle class + a huge industrial working class

Effect of The Steam Engine

• revolutionized production of cotton goods

• spread the factory system

• fired by coal and din't need a river

Steam Engine

• result of need for more efficient pumps to eliminate water seepage from deep mines (which had replaced wood as a new source of energy)

• The Newcomen steam pump emerged in 1712 but was repaired by James Watt and made much more efficient

Iron Industry

• large resource of iron ore in Britain

• "puddling" - coke is used to burn away impurities from crude iron in order to make a stronger iron

• growth of iron industry leads to the production of cheaper steel which encourages industrial development

Railroads

• revolutionized transportation

• lead to the creation of new tech, jobs, and industrial opportunities

• Railroads were present in Germany in the 1500 and came to Britain in the 1600

Turnpike Trusts

funded new roads and canals

Industrial Factory

• workers had no ownership risk and made a wage to do a job

• maximization of efficiency

• regular hours and shifts

• adults were punished for infractions (held dismissal over their head), children were beat

Richard Trevithick

created the first modern railway

George Stephenson

created the first modern railway

Affects of Railroads

• increase in the coal and iron industry

• led to British supremacy in engineering

• new growth of middle-class investors in joint stock companies

• more markets, factories, and productivity

• expanded economy

New values

• disciplined path

• no more laziness and wastefulness

• hardships in life paved way for future joy

• Parallel with ideas of Evangelical and Methodist Church

• New values ingrained in future generations

First Industrial Fair

• Kensington, London in the Crystal Palace

• Symbolic of Great Britain's success

Spread of Industrialization

• industry spread from Gb to the european continent and USA

• first: belgium, france, and german states

• after 1850: spread across Europe and world

What was limiting the rest of Europe

• french revolution + napoleon era disrupted trade and led to social and political instability

• Britain had more advanced tech

• the continent had worse roads and river transit

• they had higher good costs and guild restrictions

• their entrepeneurs abided by more traditional business values

Britain's attempt to stay ahead

• Britain attempted to stop the spread of their inventions through legislation

• This failed

John Cockerill

established industrial plant in Belgium; stole British tech ideas

Continent catching up

• France and German states created technical schools

• Belgium and France saw a new generation of mechanics

• Continental govs were more involved in industrialization and funded education and advancements

• railroad construction began in continental europe

• govs used tariffs to protect industries from British competition

Friedrich List

(1789-1846)

• "National system of political economy"

• advocated for rapid industrialization to strengthen a nation _ protective tariffs are necessary

Banks

• Societe Generale, Barique de Belgique: Belgian banks invested in railroads, mining, and heavy industry

• Credit Mobilier (france), Darmstadt Bank (German), Kreditansalt (Austria): bought shares in new industries which became essential to continental industrialization

Centers of continental industrialization

• Belgium, France, and German States

• France was the continental leader in the cotton industry (but was still behind GB)

• Belgium had the most modern cotton manufacturing system by mid-1840s

• Germany was least industrialized compared to the other two

• continent had much lower efficiency compared to GB

Continental Industry

• more dispersed cotton mills and a less uniform cotton industry

• the steam engine was primarily used in mining and metallurgy but a domestic market for steam engines emerged in the 1820s

• Iron + cotton industry led the continent

Industrial Rev in the US

• 1800: US was very Agrarian but pop is increasing rapidly

• Industrialization came from immigrants from GB

• US country is much bigger which made transport hard but meant more land and labor

• made use of the steamboat for transport on rivers, lakes, and coastal waters to decrease shipping costs.

Samuel Slator

• established the first textile factory in the US

• used water power spinning machine

The Railroad in the US

• by 1860 the US had more than 27000 miles of rail

• brought new ideas, goods, and services to new regions of the USA

• Greater access to resource

Limiting the Spread of Industrialization

• Eastern Europe did not see the same level of industrialization

• i.e Russia remained under serfdom and agrarian

• Britain also attempted to prevent modern industry to their suppliers of raw materials so they could keep a monopoly on the product

US Workforce

• made up of women and European immigrants

• it was a very capital intensive pattern vs. Britain's labor intensive economy

19th century population

• large population growth

• better records of population with the use of regular census

• decrease in both birthrate and death-rate

• less famine, epidemics, and war + more food

• much more of the population as involved with manufacturing, mining, and building

• unindustrialized country became overcrowded

Irish Famine

• peasants rented land from British and lived in poverty but mostly survived off Potato

• They saw an increase in population until...

• In 1845 the potato crop was hit by a fungus (Blight) causing a massive famine in the Irish population

• More than 2 million died and more than 2 million emigrated the US and Britain

Cities in the 19th century

• cities were manufacturing and industry capital

• population of london increased by 1 million in 50 years

• Living conditions: miserable, middle class movement into suburbs, most unfortunate lived in overcrowded cellars

• Bad sanitary conditions with death rates that exceded birth rates

Food market

- became very fraudulent and exploitive towards consumers

James Kay

British reformer in favor of better working conditions for laborers

Edwin Chadwick

• obsessed with eliminating poverty and squaler in the metropolitan areas

• appointed to gov investigatory commisions: secretary of the poor law commission

• "report on the condition of the laboring population of Great Britain"

• wanted to eliminate environmental issues the laborers faced

• Supported by middle class afraid of cholera and the city authorities + wealthy

National Board of Health

• created by the British Government following Edwin Chadwick's activism

• helped establish modern sanitary system

Industrial Middle Class

* bougeoisie expanded to include people in commerce, banking, law, medicine, government offices, and crafts people

New Industrial Entrepeneurs

• constructed factories + purchases machines

• lots of opportunities and risk

• businesses lived and died at a very fast pace

• Quakers + other religious minorities were more involved in entrepeneurship along with British aristocrats

• New generation of entrepeneurs in the 1850s came from the profession and industrial middle class

• small businesses flourished

• wealthiest of the industrial middle class merged with the old elite

Workers

• industrial workers didn’t make up a lot of the working class in 1850s

• mostly artisans and crafts people who worked in guilds (which were slowly losing power)

• luxury craftspeople: development of coach building and clockworks

• servants also made up a large percent of urban workers

Industrial working conditions

• 12-16 hr days, 6 days a week

• no security of employment or minimum wage

• Cotton Mills had high temps

• Coal Mines had frequent cave-ins, explosions, and fumes which resulted in deformed bodies and ruined lungs

• women and children were employed and children were exploited as cheap labor

Labor Laws

• legislation first only covered children working in textile factories and mines, leaving those working in workshops or non factory trades unprotected

• By 1830 women and children made up of 2/3 of cotton workers

• Factory act (1833) - decrease in child labor which were just replaced by women

• Ten hours act in 1847 reduced work day for kids and women and coal mines eliminated employment of young boys and women in mines

• Laws against excessive work for women in 1855 in textile factories and mines which led to new family roles: men primarily worked while women did domestic duties

Living standard

• wealth gap widened

• high unemployment, social tension, and inflation

• Towns were very affected by economic hardship

Labor Groups/Unions

• wanted decent wages and better working conditions

• British Combination Acts outlawed the association of workers but trade unions still came to be

• tried to limit entry to their industry and gain more benefits from employers

• They would strike

• The Amalgamated Society of engineers got unemployment benefits

• Luddites: craftspeople against machines, failed

Robert Owen

• led attempt to make national unions

• created the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in 1834

• helped coordinate a general strike against the 8 hour work day

• Union fell apart quickly

• setup succesful model factory town in New Lanark, Scotland but failed to do same in New Harmony, Indiana.

Chartism

• wanted political democracy

• male suffrage for all,

• payments and annual sessions for mps.

• 2 petitions to parliament were rejected

Peace Settlement of Vienna results

• restoration of Louis XVIII in France

• Prussia and Austria allowed to keep some polish territories

• containment of france

• Prussia is expanded

• Germanic state created

• Austria given control of italian provinces

Edmund Burke

• prominent conservative

• 1729-1797

• reflections on the revolution in france

• society is a contract

Joseph de Maistre

• 1753-1821

• monarch divinely sanctioned

• obedience favored

The Concert of Europe

Four congresses (1818-1822)

1st: 1818-1822 @ Aix-la-chapelle: withdrew armies from france and added france to the quadruple alliance

2nd: 1820 deal w/ revolution in spain (Ferdinand VIII) and Italy (Ferdinand I king of naples + sicily). Metternich proposed expulsion from european alliance for those who partake in rebellions + to send armies to restore legitimate monrachs (Briain refused)

3rd: 1821 @ Laibach to authorize Austrian troops to be sent to Naples and france to invade spain to restore the monarchs

Simon Bolivar

• “the liberator”

• liberated venezuela and colombia

Jose de San Martin

• liberated Argentina, chile, peru from spanish authority

• joined Bolivar to crush last spanish army in 1824

• Mexico, central america, and brazil were also independent.

  • while the european powers wanted to reinstate spanish control, Britain and the US worked to stop the intervention (monroe doctrine + british navy)

Treaty of Adrianople

• 1820

• conclusion of Russian-Turkish war

• Greek independence (1830)

• Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia

Great Britain early 1800s

• rule of the tories

• Peterloo Massacre

• Minor reforms

David Ricardo

• 1772-1823

• comparative costs/advantage

• basis for most economists’ belief in free trade today

• Principles of political economy

• “iron law of wages” : minimum wage laws are pointless

John Stuart Mill

• On liberty: protect individual freedoms from the gov

• Subjection of women: inspired by the failures of the voting reform bill of 1867 - believed women were equal to men

Nationalism

• part of a community

• allied w/ liberalism

• emerged from french rev

• threatened europe w/ a change in power balance (united germany or italy and independent hungary

Congress of Vienna

• 1814

• goal: restore stability

• France joined a quadruple alliance between GB, Austria, Prussia, and Russia

• Leader of congress was Austrian foreign minister: Prince Klemens von Metternich (conservative)

Conservatism

• obedience, organized religion, no revolution

• community above all else

• supported by monarchs, bureaucracies, landowners, and the church

Henri de Saint Simon

1760-1825

• in Nouveau Christianisme proposed model communities to create a brotherhood of man based on scientific organization of industry and society

• ideas on equality women

Charles Fourier

1772-1838

• model communities: phalansteries

• rotating labor

• couldn’t get it funded

• failed communities in France and USA

Frances Wright

1795-1852

• disciple of robert owen

• set up model town in Nashoba, Tennessee for freed slaves; failed

• continue to work for abolition and women’s rights

Louis Blanc

1813-1882

• The Organization of Work

• claimed competition was source of suffering

• proposed government financed workshops run and owned by workers which would produce foods for public sale

Zoe Gatti de Gamand

1806-1854

* Belgian feminist and education reformer who adopted Fourier’s views and created her own phalanstery

Flora Tristan

1803-1844

• proposed absolute equality for women and a synthesis of socialism and feminism

• workers union

July Ordinances

1830

• issued by Charles X

• Suspended liberty of the press

• appointed a new Conseillers d’Etat

• dissolved the chamber of deputies

• excluded the commercial middle class from future elections by lowering the electorare

July Revolution

Day 1: Garde Royale: protect key locations in paris, 21 civilians killed in riots, tricolor becomes the rallying flag + symbolic embolism of revolution.

Day 2: opposition: attempts to convince the king to withdraw the July Ordinances: fail

Day 3: ransacking and restoration of order: the tuileries, palace, louvre, and palais de justice, ransacked by mobs. order eventually restored as politicans setup a provisional government

Charles X abdicated on August 2nd

King Louis Philipe

1830-1848

• Duke of Orleans became constitutional king

• favored by the upper bourgeoisie and upper middle class who wanted limited reform

• parisian working class were dissatisfied with the king

• Party of Movement: Bourgeoisie members of the chamber of deputies (led by Adolphe Thiers) who favored ministerial responsibility, active foreign policy, and limited french expansion

• Party of Resistance: led by Francois Guizot, believed no further changes needed - supported the king

• france expanded rapidly industrialy

Greek Revolts

1821

• revolt against ottoman turkish masters which became a noble cause across Europe

• in 1827 a combined British and French fleet defeated a large ottoman armada

• Russia declared war on the ottoman empire and invaded Maldavia and Wallachia

• Russia, France, and Britain were given the power to decide the independence of Greece

Great Britain early 1800s

• governed by the aristocratic landowning classes

• elections in the HOC was unequal

• Tories dominated till 1830

• Corn Laws were passed as a response to low agricultural prices: high tariffs on foreign grain which made bread prices higher for the working class which caused mass protests

• Squadron of cavalry attacked a crowd @ st. peter’s field in Manchester in 1819 (Peterloo Massacre) caused parliament to further repress public meeting

France early 1800s

• Louis XVIII restored the Bourbon Monarchy

• Accepted Napoleon’s civil code

• made a bicameral legislative assembly with the chamber of peers (chosen by king) and the chamber of deputies (chosen by electorate)

• Ultra-royalists and liberals both disliked his moderateness

Charles X

• ultraroyalist french king

• gave indemnity to aristocrats

• tried to respread catholocism

• liberal opposed and he was forced to accept that the king’s ministers were responsible to the legislature

• he violated which caused protests so he dissolved the legislature

Italy early 1800s

• congress of vienna established 9 italian states: piedmont, kingdom of 2 sicilies, the papal states, lombardy, venetia, etc.

• Italy was mostly under Austrian domination

• the states somethered any liberal or nationalist sentiment

Spain early 1800s

• Ferdinand VII restored the Bourbon dynasty to spain

• agreed to observe liberal constitution of 1812 which created an elected parliamentary assembly: Cortes

• King went back on his promise which caused army officers, upper middle class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt

• A french army forced the revolutionary government out of spain and restored Ferdinand

Germanic confederation

• layed out in the congress of vienna

• had the federal diet as the only central organ which needed unanimous vote and was therefore powerless

• Germans favored liberalism and looked to Prussia for leadership

King Frederick William III

• king of prussia during the Napoleonic era

• followed Chief Ministers Baron Heinrich Von Stein and Baron Karl Von Hardening

• instituted reforms: abolition of serfdom, municipal self governance, expansion of schools and universal military conscription to make a national army

• Prussia was still absolutist but had liberal movements driven by university professors and students

Burschenschaften

• student societies dedicated to making a free and united Germany

• inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn

• burned books by conservative authors at an assembly at Wartburg Castle in 1817 and assasinated a playwright

• Metternich reacted by making the diet of the germanic confederation write the karlsbad decrees of `1819 which closed the students societies, censored the press, and placed universities under close supervision

Russia early 1800s

• rural, agricultural, and autocratic

• Alexander I: initially wanted reform and relaxed censorship, freed prisoners, and reformed education. But refused a constitution and did not abolish serfdom

• Northern Union: young aristocrats who had served in napoleonic wars + intellectuals who wanted more freedom in their universities: favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and abolition of serfdom

• Confusion in 1825: Nicholas took the throne instead of Constantine which caused rebellion

Nicholas

• Russian king

• crushed revolt

• strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret police

  • Political police: 3rd section of the tsar’s chancellery were given power over Russian life - deported suspicious people and reported to the tsar

Liberalism

• developing industrial middle class

• people should be free from restraint

• Economic liberalism: lasseiz-faire - gov should only defend, police, and construct

• Politically: equality and freedom of assembly, speech, etc. Seperation of church and state, representative assembly and constitutional monarchy.

• limited suffrage: men w/ property

Thomas Malthus

• Essay on the principles of population

• population grows faster than food means overpopulation and starvation are inevitable

David Ricardo

• Principles of political economy

• iron law of wages - increasing pop means lower wages

• no need for a minimum wage

1830 Revolts

1830

• Belgian independence from Dutch recognized

  • Leopold of Saxe-Coburg installed as king

• Metternich’s Austrian Troops crush revolt in Northern Italian States

1831

• Polish revolt quelled by Russians after they fail to gain support from French and British

Reform in Great Britain

• 1830 elections put whigs in power

• Reform Act (1837) - expansion of suffrage to industrial middle class, redistributed voting distrits (for fairness)

• Poor law: (1834) - creation of more poor houses for working poor but make them miserable to force them to work

• Repealed corn laws (1846) - anti corn law league abolish import duties on cereal grain because it meant increased bread prices for working class. Supported by Tory Leader (Robert Peel)

• British evangelicals set up sunday schools to improve working class children - this idea of teaching the working class how to be better became a big theme throughout europe

1848 Revolutions

• France suffered a severe industrial and agricultural depression which led to hardship for lower middle class, workers, and peasants

• 1/3 of workers in paris were unemployed and government refused to extend suffrage

• Republicans, socialists, and the upper middle class came together under Adolphe Thiers to advocate for the dismissal of Guizot

• They held 70 political banquets to get around political rally bans

• The gov tried to outlaw the banquets so students and workers put up barricades in paris and Louis Phillipe fled to Britain

Results of the 1848 revs

• A provisional gov was created by republicans (including socialist Louis Blanc) which was ordered to convene a constituents assembly elected by universal manhood suffrage

• created national workshops run by workers which cost too much - shut down which led to revolts where many died and were imprisoned (deported to algeria)

• new gov split between moderate republicans (support from most of france) and radical republicans (support from parisian working class)

• new constitution ratified to create “the second republic”: made a unicameral legislature elected by male suffrage for 3 years

• president elected for 4 years - Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte is elected

Central Europe in mid 1800s

• Agricultural depression

• Frederick WIlliam IV (prussian) abolished censorship, make a new constitution, and is supportive of a united germany

• Frankfurt Assembly: first freely elected parliament in the German states where educated middle class delegates deliberated Grossdeutsch vs. Kleindeutsch (austria withdrew so kleideutsch reigned supreme)

Growth of the US

• Alexander Hamilton - federalist (favored strong central govt - pro british)

• Thomas Jefferson - republican (fearful of centralization pro french)

• War of 1812 ended federalists and increased nationalism

• John Marshall

• Andrew Jackson - democrat, expansion of suffrage (white males), new penal systems

New Police

• 1st half of 1800s: large increase in property crimes

• France (1878) introduces the blue uniform, cane, saber

• British feared oppression: resisted civil and military policy, unpaid constable proved innefective

  • 1829 introduced 3,000 uniformed officers (Bobbies) to london

• Berlin: Schitzmannschaft - similar to london police but more militarized and driven by politics

Prisons

• imprisonment replaces capital punishment

• British exportation of criminals to australia slowed

• Motivation for incarceration: reform and rehab

• French and British observe prisons in the US

• Auburn Prison, NY: daywork cooperative but seperated at night

• Walnut Street Prison, Philadelphia: separated into individual cells

• Petite Roquette, France and Pentonville, Britain: prisoners wore leather masks during exercise, solitary confinement

• increase prison population meant increased costs

Romanticism

late 18th century - early 19th century

• balance of reason w/ emotion, the rebellion of thought

• poetry is a big part of it - Percy Bysshe Shelley

• individualism and sentiment, defy the world and sacrifice for a great cause

• pantheism: god is in nature

Johann Wolfgange Von Goethe

1749-1831

• greatest genius of modern german literature

• romantic who became a classicist (politically conservative)

• influenced literature, art, music, drama, poetry

• The Sorrow of the Young Werther: tragic love story. themes: for self, nature of love, and suicide

Thomas Carlyle

1795-1881

• The french revolution: a history

• role of the hero in fiction

Fairytales

• The Brothers Grimm: local fairytales in Germany

• Hans Christen Anderson (Denmark): fairytales, myth, heroism

Sir Walter Scotts

• Ivanhoe

• best-seller, evocation of the conflicts between Saxons and Normany

Hungarian Revolts

• hungarian liberals under louis kossuth wanted a commonwealth status with their own legislature

• Demonstrations in Buda, PRague, and Vienna led to Metternich’s dismissal

• revolutionary forces took control of the Capital in Vienna and called a constituents assembly to make a liberal constitution

• Hungary was granted a legislature, national army, and control over foreign policy and budget

• Francis Joseph I worked to put down Kussoth’s forces with the help of Nicholas I of Russia.

Czech Rebellion

• Czechs in bohemia also wanted their own government

• at first Emperor Ferdinand I made concessions but in 1848 a military force under General Alfred WIndischgratz suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague

• When a minister for war was killed by a mob in Vienna, the General took it as an opportunity to crush the rebels completely

• Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of Franz Joseph I

Italian rev

• Giuseppe Mazzini became leader of Italy’s risorgimento who founded “young italy” whose goal was to created a united republic

• The Duties of Man urged italians to dedicated their lives to the Italian nation

• Cristina Belgioso worked to unify Italy but was pursued by Austrian authorities, she started a newspaper in paris in support of the unification

• Italian states revolted in 1848 starting w/ sicily as rulers granted constitutions

• Citizens in lombardy and venetia rebelled against austrian overlords

• Venetians created a republic of venice

• King of Piedmont: Charles Albert assumed leadership in the war of liberation from austrian control

• Austrians reestablished control and counterrevolutionary forces prevailed as the french helped pope pius ix regain control of rome

• only piedmont kep its liberal constitution

Gothic literature

• Edgar Allan Poe

• Mary Shelley: Frankenstein

• had historical elements