Reformation, Scientific Revolution, and Age of Exploration: Key Concepts and Figures

Term

Definition

Printing Press

"Invented by Johann Gutenberg in the mid-15th century, the printing press allowed for the mass production of books and texts, increasing literacy and spreading ideas rapidly. It was a critical tool for the Reformation, enabling Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses and other reformist writings to circulate widely. Printing also fostered intellectual exchange and contributed to the spread of Renaissance humanism. Its cultural impact reshaped European education, religion, and communication."

Indulgences

"Payments made to the Catholic Church that promised to reduce punishment for sins, often used to fund church projects. Johann Tetzel famously sold indulgences with the slogan 'As soon as the gold in the casket rings, the rescued soul to heaven springs.' Indulgences became a central target of Martin Luther's criticism in his Ninety-Five Theses of 1517. The controversy highlighted clerical corruption and helped spark the Protestant Reformation."

Martin Luther

"A German monk, theologian, and reformer (1483-1546) who challenged the Catholic Church's practices, particularly indulgences. He authored the Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, promoting ideas like sola fide (faith alone) and sola scriptura (scripture alone). Excommunicated by the Church, he gained support from German princes, sparking widespread religious and political change. Luther's teachings laid the foundation for Lutheranism and the wider Protestant Reformation."

Sola Fide

"A key Lutheran principle meaning 'faith alone' saves humanity, rejecting the Catholic emphasis on both faith and works for salvation. It emphasized a personal relationship with God over Church-mediated rituals. This concept challenged the authority of the clergy and became a cornerstone of Protestant theology. It spread rapidly through Luther's writings and the use of the printing press."

Sola Scriptura

"The Protestant belief that the Bible alone is the ultimate authority for Christian faith and practice. Contrasts with Catholic doctrine, which gives equal authority to Church tradition and scripture. This principle encouraged personal interpretation of the Bible and reduced reliance on clergy. It played a central role in shaping Protestant identity and religious reform."

Lutheranism

"The branch of Protestantism following Martin Luther's teachings, emphasizing faith alone, scripture alone, and the rejection of papal authority. Lutheranism retained some traditional practices, including liturgy and sacraments, but permitted clergy to marry. It integrated education and hymns into worship to spread religious knowledge. Lutheranism became politically significant, with princes using it to assert autonomy from the Catholic Church."

Ulrich Zwingli

"Swiss reformer (1484-1531) who advocated for a radical Reformation emphasizing symbolic interpretation of sacraments and minimal use of religious imagery. He rejected the Catholic Mass and stressed scripture over tradition. Zwingli's reforms led to divisions within Protestantism and influenced the development of Reformed churches. He was killed in the Swiss religious wars, showing the dangers of religious conflict."

Anabaptists

"A radical Protestant movement advocating adult baptism, separation of church and state, and strict adherence to scripture. They rejected infant baptism and emphasized voluntary faith communities. Often persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestants, they maintained millenarian and communal beliefs. Their ideas influenced later groups like the Mennonites and Amish."

Jean Calvin

"French theologian (1509-1564) and reformer who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination, the sovereignty of God, and strict moral discipline. He restructured the church in Geneva, creating a model for Reformed Protestantism. Calvin's teachings spread across Europe, influencing Scotland, the Netherlands, and parts of France. Calvinism contributed to religious wars and shaped European politics and culture."

Peace of Augsburg

"A 1555 treaty within the Holy Roman Empire that established the principle 'Cuius regio, eius religio,' allowing rulers to choose the religion of their state (Lutheranism or Catholicism). Calvinism was not initially recognized. This agreement temporarily reduced religious conflict but maintained political and religious fragmentation. It set a precedent for state-controlled religion and later influenced the Peace of Westphalia."

Edict of Nantes

"Issued in 1598 by Henry IV of France, granting limited religious freedoms to Huguenots while affirming Catholicism as the state religion. It sought to end decades of religious conflict, including the French Wars of Religion. The edict allowed for private worship and fortified towns for Protestants. It marked an attempt at stabilizing religious tensions while maintaining national unity."

Jesuits

"Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius of Loyola, emphasizing education, missionary work, and loyalty to the pope. They promoted rigorous spiritual discipline and established schools and colleges throughout Europe. Jesuits engaged in global missionary efforts, including China, India, and the Americas. They were key actors in the Counter-Reformation, defending Catholicism and influencing politics and culture."

Counter-Reformation

"The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, involving both internal reform and defensive measures. It included the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed doctrines like faith and works, clerical celibacy, and the authority of scripture and tradition. New religious orders like the Jesuits promoted education, missions, and loyalty to the pope. The Counter-Reformation strengthened Catholic identity and addressed abuses that had prompted Protestant critique."

Council of Trent

"A major Catholic council (1545-1563) convened to address Protestant challenges and implement internal reforms. It reaffirmed Catholic doctrines, including the sacraments, purgatory, and clerical celibacy. The council also emphasized education of the clergy and mission-oriented ministry. It played a key role in the Catholic Reformation, shaping Church policy for centuries."

Scientific Revolution (not an ID)

"A period (16th-17th centuries) of major advancements in science, emphasizing empiricism, observation, and rationalism. Key figures include Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton, Bacon, and Descartes. The movement challenged traditional Aristotelian and Ptolemaic models of the cosmos. It established the foundations of modern scientific methodology and knowledge."

Nicolaus Copernicus

"Astronomer (1473-1543) who proposed a heliocentric universe, challenging the geocentric model. He relied on mathematics rather than direct observation and gained limited Church support. His work sparked debate and laid the groundwork for later astronomers. Copernicus fundamentally altered humanity's view of the cosmos."

Galileo Galilei

"Italian astronomer and physicist (1564-1642) who provided observational evidence for heliocentrism using telescopes. He faced Church censure in 1616 and trial for heresy in 1633. Published 'Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems' to compare geocentric and heliocentric models. Galileo advanced empirical science and influenced the Scientific Revolution."

Johannes Kepler

"German astronomer (1571-1630) who used Tycho Brahe's observations to develop laws of planetary motion, showing elliptical orbits. His work refined heliocentric theory and influenced Newton. Kepler's contributions bridged observational data with mathematical explanation. He transformed astronomy from theoretical to empirical science."

Isaac Newton

"English mathematician and physicist (1642-1727) who formulated the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation. He provided conclusive evidence for heliocentrism. Newton integrated empirical observation with mathematical reasoning. His work became a cornerstone of modern physics and the Scientific Revolution."

Thirty Years War

"A European conflict (1618-1648) primarily within the Holy Roman Empire, involving Catholic and Protestant states. Began with the Bohemian Revolt and events like the Defenestration of Prague, escalating with interventions by Denmark, Sweden, and France. Ended with the Peace of Westphalia, establishing state sovereignty and religious recognition. Consequences included population decline, standing armies, and new taxation systems."

Mercator Projection

"A map projection developed by Gerardus Mercator in 1569 that distorts size but preserves angles, allowing sailors to plot straight-line courses. It became a critical tool for navigation during the Age of Exploration. While accurate in shape, it exaggerates areas near the poles. The projection facilitated European global exploration and trade."

Vasco de Gama

"Portuguese explorer (c. 1460-1524) who sailed around Africa to reach India (1497-1498), establishing a sea route for trade. His voyages enabled Portugal to dominate the Indian Ocean spice trade. De Gama's expeditions influenced European global commerce and colonial expansion. His success exemplified the political and economic motives for exploration."

Christopher Columbus

"Italian explorer (1451-1506) who completed four voyages across the Atlantic, initiating sustained European contact with the Americas. He sought a westward route to Asia but underestimated global geography. Columbus's expeditions led to colonization, resource extraction, and profound impacts on indigenous populations. His voyages exemplify the motives and consequences of early modern exploration."

Treaty of Tordesillas

"Signed in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian line. It granted Portugal control over Africa and Asia, and Spain over the Americas. The treaty aimed to prevent conflict between European powers. It influenced patterns of colonization, trade, and cultural exchange during the Age of Exploration."

Encomienda System

"A labor system in Spanish colonies where colonizers were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from indigenous populations. It facilitated resource extraction and colonial wealth accumulation. Often resulted in exploitation and population decline among native peoples. The system exemplified the economic motives and consequences of European colonial expansion."

Johann Tetzel

"Dominican friar known for selling indulgences in Germany, motivating Martin Luther's critique in the Ninety-Five Theses. His sales highlighted Church corruption and fueled the Protestant Reformation. Tetzel's practices became a symbol of clerical abuse. He is a key figure in understanding the social and religious context of early 16th-century Europe."

Humanism

Humanism was an intellectual movement of the Renaissance that emphasized the study of classical texts, human potential, and achievements. Humanists promoted education, moral philosophy, and a return to the sources of antiquity to understand humanity and society. This approach influenced religious reform, art, literature, and the scientific method. Humanism laid the foundation for critical thinking that challenged traditional authority, including the Church.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Martin Luther was a German monk, theologian, and reformer who challenged Catholic Church practices, especially the sale of indulgences, in his Ninety-Five Theses (1517). He promoted the ideas of sola fide (faith alone) and sola scriptura (scripture alone) as the foundations of Christian belief. His actions sparked the Protestant Reformation, dividing European Christendom and influencing both religious and political structures. Luther's translation of the Bible into German made scripture accessible to ordinary people.

John Calvin (1509-1564)

John Calvin was a French theologian and reformer whose ideas shaped the Reformed branch of Protestantism. Calvin emphasized predestination, the absolute sovereignty of God, and strict moral discipline. His writings, particularly the Institutes of the Christian Religion, influenced religious practices in Switzerland, France, Scotland, and beyond. Calvinism encouraged a disciplined society and impacted political thought, education, and church governance.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, physicist, and astronomer whose work revolutionized science during the Scientific Revolution. Newton formulated the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation, providing a mathematical framework for understanding the physical universe. His work built upon the ideas of earlier scientists but also integrated observation and experimentation. Newton's discoveries reinforced the heliocentric model and laid the foundation for classical mechanics.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Francis Bacon was an English philosopher and statesman who promoted empirical, experimental methods to acquire knowledge. Bacon emphasized inductive reasoning, advocating for careful observation and practical experimentation rather than relying solely on traditional authority. His work Novum Organum (1620) helped establish the scientific method as a systematic approach to understanding nature. Bacon's ideas influenced later scientists and the development of modern empiricism.