PSYC 101 Final Exam Exam #1 Essay Review

What is the scientific method?

A systematic way for scientists to evaluate ideas and test them with observation and analysis

What is a falsifiable hypothesis and why is it important?

A hypothesis that can be disproven through experimentation or observation; it separates scientific from non-scientific claims and allows for progress in understanding.

What does it mean to operationalize variables?

To specifically define variables so they can be measured or tested in real life

What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

Independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher (cause); dependent variable (DV) is measured to see the effect (effect).

What is internal validity?

The extent to which a study can show a cause-and-effect relationship between IV and DV.

What is external validity?

The extent to which study results can be generalized to other populations or settings.

What is reliability and why is it important?

The consistency of a measure over time or across observers; it ensures trust in data and allows for replication.

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning links two stimuli to produce a learned response; operant conditioning shapes behavior through rewards and punishments.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing incremental steps toward a desired behavior to build complex behaviors gradually.

What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement adds a stimulus to encourage behavior; negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to encourage behavior.

What is the difference between positive and negative punishment?

Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus to discourage behavior; negative punishment removes a rewarding stimulus to discourage behavior.

What are the different reinforcement schedules?

Ratio schedules depend on number of responses

What is emotion regulation?

The process of influencing which emotions we have

What are some emotion regulation strategies?

Suppression

What is misattribution of arousal?

When people incorrectly attribute the cause of physiological arousal to the wrong source

What is hedonic adaptation?

The tendency for happiness levels to return to a baseline after positive or negative life events.

What is affective forecasting?

Predicting how we will feel in the future; people often overestimate how long they will feel happy or sad.

What is brain plasticity?

The brain’s ability to form and reorganize neural connections based on experience.

What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?

Judgment

What is the limbic system responsible for?

Emotions

Why are adolescents more likely to take risks?

Limbic system develops faster than the prefrontal cortex

What is nature versus nurture?

The interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences in shaping behavior and traits.

What is epigenetics?

The study of environmental influences on gene expression without changing the DNA sequence.

What are examples of environmental effects on gene expression?

Stress

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype = genetic makeup; phenotype = observable traits expressed from genes.

What is the Minnesota Twin Study?

Study of identical twins separated at birth to examine the influence of genetics vs. environment; found strong genetic influence on personality and intelligence

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

What is habituation?

The decline in response to a repeated stimulus

What is the role of reinforcement versus punishment in behavior?

Reinforcement strengthens behavior and is more effective long-term; punishment decreases behavior but can have negative side effects.

What are schemas and how do they affect memory?

Mental frameworks that help interpret information efficiently but can distort memory by filling in gaps incorrectly.

What is source amnesia?

Forgetting the source of a memory

What is misattribution in memory?

Assigning a memory or feeling to the wrong source

How can reinforcement schedules affect learning and extinction?

Variable schedules produce more resistant behaviors; fixed schedules are more predictable but extinguish faster.

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

Controls higher-level thinking

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Processes sensory input for touch

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Processes visual information and helps interpret and recognize visual stimuli.

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

Includes auditory areas

What does the hypothalamus do?

Maintains homeostasis (eating

What is the hippocampus responsible for?

Processes conscious

What is the amygdala responsible for?

Linked to emotion

What does the cerebellum do?

Coordinates voluntary movement

What is the function of the brainstem?

Controls automatic survival functions like heartbeat and breathing.

What is the function of the medulla?

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

What is the function of the pons?

Coordinates movements and controls sleep.

What is the function of the thalamus?

Receives information from all senses (except smell) and relays it to higher brain regions; sends higher brain replies to medulla and cerebellum.

What is the reticular formation responsible for?

Filters incoming stimuli and relays important information to other brain areas; controls arousal.

What are the key parts of a neuron?

Cell body

What is the function of dendrites?

Receive incoming signals from other neurons and transmit them to the cell body.

What is the function of the axon?

Carries electrical impulses from the cell body to other neurons

What is the function of myelin?

Fatty layer insulating axons

What is the function of axon terminals?

Release neurotransmitters into the synapse to communicate with other neurons

What are glial cells and their functions?

Support

What is an action potential?

An electrical signal that travels down the axon when excitatory signals exceed inhibitory signals

What is the all-or-none law?

A neuron either fires at full strength or not at all; there is no partial firing.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses from one neuron to another.

What does acetylcholine (ACh) do?

Enables muscle action

What does dopamine do?

Influences movement

What does serotonin do?

Affects mood

What does norepinephrine do?

Helps control arousal and alertness.

What does GABA do?

Inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity.

What does glutamate do?

Excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory.

What do endorphins do?

Control perception of pain and pleasure.

What is lateralization of brain function?

The specialization of the left and right hemispheres for different tasks.

What is the main function of the left hemisphere?

Language

What is the main function of the right hemisphere?

Perceptual tasks

What is the corpus callosum?

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

What happens in split-brain patients?

Each hemisphere can process information independently; left hemisphere handles language

What are the three basic stages of memory?

Encoding (getting information in)

What is the difference between incidental and intentional learning?

Incidental learning occurs without conscious effort (automatic)

What is working memory?

An active

What is long-term memory?

Relatively permanent memory storage for knowledge

What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory?

Explicit: conscious facts and experiences; implicit: automatic skills and conditioned associations.

What are semantic memories?

Explicit memories of facts and knowledge (e.g.

What are episodic memories?

Explicit memories of personally experienced events (what

What are procedural memories?

Implicit memories of motor skills and automatic behaviors (e.g.

What is shallow processing?

Surface-level processing with minimal attention; leads to weak

What is deep processing?

Semantic

What are strategies for improving memory encoding and retrieval?

Mnemonics

What is habituation?

Decreased response to repeated stimuli; allows focus on novel or important information.

What is classical conditioning?

Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

Diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

Reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

What is positive reinforcement?

Encouraging behavior by presenting a rewarding stimulus.

What is negative reinforcement?

Encouraging behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

What is positive punishment?

Discouraging behavior by adding an aversive stimulus.

What is negative punishment?

Discouraging behavior by removing a rewarding stimulus.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.

What is the difference between fixed and variable ratio schedules?

Fixed ratio: reward after a set number of responses; variable ratio: reward after an unpredictable number of responses.

What is the difference between fixed and variable interval schedules?

Fixed interval: reward after a fixed amount of time; variable interval: reward after unpredictable time intervals.

Why is reinforcement generally more effective than punishment?

Reinforcement increases desired behaviors

What is misattribution of arousal?

Incorrectly attributing physiological arousal to the wrong source

What are the James-Lange

Cannon-Bard

What is emotion regulation?

The process of influencing which emotions we have

What are common emotion regulation strategies?

Suppression

What is hedonic adaptation?

The tendency for happiness levels to return to baseline after positive or negative events.

What is affective forecasting?

Predicting future emotions; people often overestimate how long they will feel happy or sad.

How do schemas affect memory?

Schemas help interpret information but can distort memories by filling in gaps or altering details to fit expectations.