Psychology Chapter 1

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (I-knew-it-all-along-phenomenon)

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operational defined as "what an intelligence test measures"

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

an observation technique in which one person in studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. cannot infer causality; restricted to descriptions

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

population

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies this does not refer to a country's whole population.)

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

a measure of teh extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) the absolute value indicates strength of relationship

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents that values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

experimental group

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

in an experiment the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

mode

the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

3 reasons we need psychological science

1. Hindsight Bias

2. Overconfidence

3. Percieving order in random events

3 scientific attitude components

1.Curious-a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled

2.skeptical-open but not gullible

3.humble- awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives

Critical Thinking

examining assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions

empirical

something observable

overt response

readily observable ex; moving, speaking

covert response

unobservable ex; feelings

covert physiological

ex; heartrate EKG brainwaves EEG

covert experiental

internal feelings love, despair

Academic fields in psychology

Biopsychology, experimental, developmental, personality/social, cognitive, educational

Applied/ practicing specialties in psychology

Clinical/counseling, school, industrial, human factors, consulting

scientific method requirement

conclusions must match method

Assumptions of scientist

1. universe is lawful

2. causal determinacy

assumptions of behavioral scientist

1. Behavior is lawful

2. Behavior has cause that will always instigate that same behavior if presented again

Determinism

view of behavior saying there is no free will or freedom and that behavior is determined by

1. heredity

2. previous learning

3. present context (immediate environment)

The law of Effect

E.L. Thorndike- We continue behaviors that are reinforced and that lead to positive consequences and stop behaviors that are either punished or useless

experimentation

powerful scientific method, only one used to infer causality

variable

anything that can be changed or is not fixed

literary definition

define by using other terms

Norms of objectivity

N ot an interpretation

O bjective

R eliable

M easurable

S pecific

Trials to Criterion (TTC)

amount of trials it takes an organism to reach the learning criteria in 1 errorless trial

pretest post test design

Exper.-pretest-posttest

Contr.-pretest-postest

Experimental should not be= control

descriptive statistics

measures of central tendency

inferential statistics

use sample to draw inference about population

Positive Correlation

As x increases so does y

negative correlation

as x decreases y tends to as well

Ethical Principles

-Respect dignity and worth of individual

-Promote human welfare

-Maintain confidentiality

-Avoid concealment and deception

-safegaurd health, comfort, and humane treatment of nonhuman

-make every effort to minimize chances of pain, discomfort or illness