AP Psychology Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

Person Perception

The process of forming impressions and making judgments about others.

Attribution

The explanation of behaviors or events by assigning causes to them.

Dispositional attribution

Explaining behavior based on internal traits or personality.

Situational attribution

Explaining behavior based on external factors or circumstances.

Explanatory style

A habitual way of interpreting events in life.

Optimistic explanatory style

A tendency to see positive events as caused by stable, personal factors and negative events as temporary and external.

Pessimistic explanatory style

A tendency to see negative events as caused by stable, personal factors and positive events as temporary and external.

Actor/observer bias

A tendency to explain one's own actions with external factors while explaining others' actions with internal traits.

Fundamental attribution error

A tendency to overemphasize internal traits and underestimate external influences when judging others.

Self-serving bias

A tendency to take credit for successes but blame failures on outside factors.

Mere exposure effect

A phenomenon where repeated exposure to something increases preference for it.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A situation where expectations influence behavior, making the expectation more likely to come true.

Social comparison

Evaluating oneself in relation to others.

Upward social comparison

A comparison to someone perceived as better to improve self-perception.

Downward social comparison

A comparison to someone perceived as worse to boost self-esteem.

Relative deprivation

A feeling of being deprived when comparing oneself to others.

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people.

Cognitive load

The mental effort required to process information.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group based on stereotypes.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of people based on group membership.

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that exist outside of conscious awareness.

Just-world phenomenon

A belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim-blaming.

Out-group homogeneity bias

A tendency to see members of an outside group as more similar to each other than they really are.

In-group bias

A preference for one's own group over others.

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own culture.

Attitude

A settled way of thinking or feeling that influences behavior.

Action

A behavior carried out with intent or purpose.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A strategy where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger one later.

Door-in-the-face technique

A strategy where making a large, unreasonable request first increases the chances of agreeing to a smaller one.

Role

A set of expectations about how someone in a particular position should behave.

Cognitive dissonance theory

A theory that suggests inconsistencies between beliefs and behaviors create discomfort, leading to attitude changes.

Persuasion

The process of influencing attitudes and behaviors.

Elaboration likelihood model

A model that explains how people are persuaded through deep thinking or superficial cues.

Peripheral route persuasion

A method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors like attractiveness or emotion.

Halo effect

A bias where positive impressions of a person lead to positive judgments about unrelated traits.

Central route persuasion

A method of persuasion that relies on logical arguments and critical thinking.

Belief perseverance

A tendency to cling to one's beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence.

Confirmation bias

A tendency to look for information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory information.

Cognitive dissonance

An uncomfortable mental state caused by conflicting attitudes or behaviors.

Social norms

Unwritten rules about expected behaviors in a society.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior to match a group standard.

Social influence theory

A perspective that explains how people are influenced by those around them.

Normative social influence

Conforming to a group to be liked or accepted.

Informational social influence

Conforming because of the belief that the group has more accurate information.

Obedience

Following direct orders from an authority figure.

Social facilitation

Improved performance on simple tasks when others are present.

Social loafing

A tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Deindividuation

A loss of self-awareness and restraint in group situations that foster anonymity.

Group polarization

A tendency for group discussions to strengthen the dominant viewpoint, leading to more extreme decisions.

Groupthink

A desire for harmony in a group that results in poor decision-making.

Individualism

A cultural emphasis on personal goals and independence.

Collectivism

A cultural emphasis on group goals and interdependence.

Multiculturalism

A recognition and appreciation of multiple cultural identities within a society.

Antisocial behavior

Behavior that harms others or society.

Frustration-aggression principle

A theory that frustration increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

Social scripts

Culturally learned guides for how to behave in social situations.

Proximity

The tendency for physical closeness to increase attraction.

Mere exposure effect

A phenomenon where repeated exposure to something increases liking for it.

Similarity

A tendency to be attracted to people with shared characteristics.

Passionate vs. companionate love

An intense emotional state at the beginning of a relationship that may evolve into deep affection and commitment.

Altruism

A selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Diffusion of responsibility

A phenomenon where individuals are less likely to take responsibility for action when others are present.

Bystander effect

A decrease in the likelihood of helping behavior when more people are around.

Social reciprocity norm

A belief that people should help those who have helped them.

Social responsibility norm

A belief that people should help those who depend on them.

Prosocial behavior

Behavior intended to benefit others.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social traps

A situation where individuals act in their own self-interest but ultimately harm the group.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

An expectation that leads to behaviors that make the expectation come true.

False consensus effect

A tendency to overestimate how much others share one's opinions and behaviors.

Superordinate goals

Goals that require cooperation between opposing groups to achieve.

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

A branch of psychology that applies psychological concepts to workplace behavior.

Burnout

A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion due to prolonged stress.

Social debt

A sense of obligation to return favors or acts of kindness.

Situational variables

Environmental or situational factors that influence behavior.

Attentional variables

Factors related to attention that influence perception and memory.

Psychodynamic theory

A psychological perspective that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts.

Unconscious processes

Mental processes that occur outside of conscious awareness.

Ego defense mechanisms

Strategies used by the mind to reduce anxiety and protect self-esteem.

Denial

Refusing to acknowledge distressing realities.

Displacement

Redirecting emotions from their original source to a safer target.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Rationalization

Creating logical explanations to justify behaviors or feelings.

Reaction formation

Behaving in a way opposite to one's true feelings to reduce anxiety.

Regression

Reverting to behaviors from an earlier developmental stage.

Repression

Blocking distressing thoughts from conscious awareness.

Sublimation

Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable activities.

Projective tests

Assessment methods that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts.

Preconscious mind

Mental content that is not currently in awareness but can be accessed.

Unconscious mind

A part of the mind containing repressed thoughts, memories, and desires.

Humanistic psychology

A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth and potential.

Unconditional regard

Providing acceptance and support without conditions.

Self-actualizing tendency

An innate drive toward personal growth and fulfillment.

Social-cognitive theory

A perspective that emphasizes the interaction between personal traits, behaviors, and environment.

Reciprocal determinism

The idea that personality is shaped by the interaction between thoughts, behavior, and surroundings.

Self-concept

A collection of beliefs about oneself.

Self-efficacy

A belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-esteem

A person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value.

Trait theories

Theories that focus on identifying and measuring consistent personality traits.

Big Five Personality Test

A widely used model that identifies five key personality traits.