AP Psychology: Cognition

memory

human capacity to register, retain, and remember information. Three models of memory: information processing model, levels of processing theory, Atkinson-Shiffrin model

information processing model

of memory; encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

the process of putting information into the memory system

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

RETRIEVAL

the process of getting information out of the memory stage

levels of processing theory/semantic network theory

the ability to form memories depends upon the depth of the processing (shallow, deep processing, self-reference effect)

shallow processing

structural encoding emphasizes the structure of incoming sensory information

deep processing

semantic encoding involves forming an association or attaching meaning to a sensory impression and results in longer-lasting memories

self-reference effect/self-referent encoding

processing information deemed important or relevant more deeply, making it easier to recall

Atkinson-Shiffrin model

of memory; three memory systems (sensory, short-term, long-term)

sensory memory

memory system that holds external events from the senses for up to a few seconds

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

selective attention

the focusing of awareness on stimuli in sensory memory that facilitiates its encoding into STM

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of information about space,time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things

parallel processing

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously

effortful processing

encoding that requires our attention and conscious effort

feature extraction (pattern recognition)

finding a match for a new raw information in sensory storage by actively searching through long term memory

short-term memory

working memory, 20 seconds before forgotten, capacity of seven +/- 2 terms

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information to either maintain information in STM or to encode it for storage

maintenance rehearsal

repetition that keeps information in STM about 20 seconds

elaborative rehearsal

repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories in the LTM

chunking

grouping information into meaningful units increasing the capacity of STM

mnemonic devices

memory tricks or strategies to make information easier to remember

method of loci

uses visualizations w/ familiar objects on a path to recall information in a list

peg word system

uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme (one is a bun, two is...)

Baddeley's working memory model

a more complex model than just passive STM, includes a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive

long-term memory

relatively permanent storage with unlimited capacity, LTM is subdivided into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit memory

explicit memory

declarative, memory of facts and experiences that one consciously knows and can verbalize. Explicit memory is subdivided into semantic memory and episodic memory.

semantic memory

memory of general knowledge or objective facts

episodic memory

memory of personally experienced events

implicit memory

nondeclarative, retention without conscious recollection of learning the skills and dispositions

procedural memory

memories of perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills

hierarchies

LTM; systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes

concepts

mental representations of related things

prototypes

the most typical example of a concept

semantic networks

more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies with multiple links from one concept to others (web)

schemas

frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about people, objects, and events based on past experience

script

a schema for an event

flashbulb memory

vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

connectionism

theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections between neurons, many of which can work together to process a single memory

neural network/parallel processing model

clusters of neurons that are interconnected (and computer models based on neuronlike systems) process information simultaneously, automatically, and without our awareness

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and possibly the neural basis for learning and memory, involving an increase in the efficience with which signals are sent across the synapse within neural networks

thalamus (memory)

encoding sensory memory into STM

hippocampus (memory)

putting information from STM into LTM.

amygdala (memory)

storage of emotional memories

cerebellum (memory)

processes implicit memories and seems to store procedural memory and classically conditioned memories

retrieval

THE PROCESS OF GETTING INFO OUT OF THE MEMORY STAGE

retrieval cue

a stimulus that provides a trigger to get an item out of memory

priming

activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously

recognition

identification of something as familiar such as multiple choice and matching questions on atest

recall

retrieval of information from LTM in the absence of any other information or cues such as for an essay question or fill-in on a test

reconstruction

retrieval that can be distorted by adding, dropping, or changing details to complete a picture from incomplete information

confabulation

the process of combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you're trying to remember

misinformation effect

incorporation of misleading information into memories of a given event

serial position effect

better recall for information that comes at the beginning (primacy effect) and at the end (recency effect)

encoding specificity principle

retrieval depends on the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved

context-dependent memory

physical setting in which a person learns information is encoded along with the information and becomes part of the memory trace

mood congruence (mood-dependent memory)

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

state-dependent memory effect

tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded

distributed practice

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, typically produces better retrieval than massed pratice

interference

learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar

proactive interference

the process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer memories

retroactive interference

the process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories

repression

the tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind, according the Freud

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the often temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in the LTM

anterograde amnesia

inability to put new information into explicit memory resulting from damage to hippocampus; no new semantic memories can be formed

retrograde amnesia

memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering

metacognition

thinking about how you think

trial and error

trying possible solutions and discarding those that fail to solve the problem

algorithm

problem-solving strategy that involves a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to certain types of problems

heuristic

a problem-solving strategy used as a mental shortcut to quickly simplify and solve a problem, but that does not guarantee a correct solution

deductive reasoning

general to the specific

inductive reasoning

specific to general

mental sets

barriers to problem solving that occur when we apply only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new or different strategies

functional fixedness

when we are not able to recognize neovel uses for an object because we are so familiar with its common use

cognitive illusion

systematic way of thinking that is responsible for an error in judgment

availability heuristic

a tendency to estimate the probability of certain event in terms of how readily they come to mind

representativeness heuristic

tendency to judge the likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype

framing

the way an issue is stated. how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgement

anchoring effect

tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response toward that point

confirmation bias

tendency to notice or seek information that already supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas

belief perseverance

the tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief is discredited

belief bias

the tendency for our preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, making illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid

hindsight bias

the tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outcome of the event

overconfidence bias

the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments

creativity

the ability to think about a problem or idea in a new and unusual ways to come up with unconventional solutions

brainstorming

generating lots of possible solutions to a problem without making prior evaluative judgments

divergent thinking

thinking that produces many alternatives or ideas

convergent thinking

conventional thinking directed toward a single correct solution

language

communication system based on words and grammar; spoken, written or gestured words and the way they are combined to communicate meaning from person to person and to transmit civilization's accumulated knowledge

phonemes

smallest units of sound in spoken language

morphemes

the smallest unit of language that has meaning

grammar

a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

syntax

rules that are used to order words into grammatically sensible sentences

semantics

a set of rules we use to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

babbling

an infant's spontaneous production of speech sounds; begins around 4 months old