His BAC: All definitions

Salami tactics

the salami tactics refers to a divide and conquer approach, aims to split opposition, coined by Hungarian communist leader Matyos Rakosi to describe his technique of dividing political parties in the 40s, Joseph Stalin to create more communist states

Atlanticism

policy/principle of close military economic and political cooperations between Europe and North America, used for the advocacy of NATO and by explaining the strong cultural ties that they have

Warsaw Pact

14.05.1955, a collective defence Treaty, 8 eastern European countries, like NATO, aimed at solidifying Soviet control in military and political affairs, bcz rearmament West Germany and its integration into NATO, ussr feared revival of German militarism and NATOs plans to encircle the eastern Bloc.

De-Stalinization

25.02.1965, the political and social progress of eradicating influence of Stalin’s policies and cult of personality. his successor Nikita Khrushchev, “secret speech” at 20th congress of the communist party. the release of many political prisoners of Stalin, dismantling Stalin’s cult of personality, and improving focus on consumer goods.

Hungarian Revolution

23.10-04.11.1956, spontaneous nationwide uprising against Soviet control, sparked by student protests demanding reforms and political freedom. Prime Minister Imre Nagy initially supported attempted to exit the Warsaw Pact, brutally crushed, ks of deaths, Nagy's execution, and a mass exodus of Hungarians to Austria

Normalization

process of reimposing strict Soviet-style control in Czechoslovakia after the 1968 Prague Spring, led by Gustav Husák from 1969. It involved reversing liberal reforms, purging reformists, reinstating censorship, and restoring a command economy to ensure loyalty to Moscow and eliminate dissent.

Brezhnev doctrine

1968, Bratislava declaration, ussr right to intervene in any socialist country if socialism was threatened, justifying Soviet control over the Eastern Bloc. It was used to legitimize interventions in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968), claiming that one state's shift away from socialism endangered the entire socialist system

Ostpolitik

Eastern Policy, referring to the West German policy initiative, led by chancellor Willy Brandt in the late 60s and 70s, aimed at normalizing relations with East Germany, the SU and other Eastern Bloc countries. sought to reduce Cold War tensions through engagement and reconciliation rather than confrontation.

Unilateralism

One Country is the main player ex. US directly after the CW

Bilateralism

Two countries are the main players ex. US and SU during the CW

Multilateralism

Many countries are the main players ex. Nowadays

Federalism

is a system of government in which power is divided between central (national) authority and individual states or regions, each with its own governments. This arrangement allows each level of government to have some degree of autonomy and authority over specific issues, while sharing powers on others.

Supranationalism

is a system where multiple countries transfer their authority to a higher organization that can make decisions binding on all member states, often overriding individual national laws. This approach is seen in entities such as the EU.

Intergovernmentalism

is a system where multiple governments collaborate on common issues while maintaining their sovereignty. Decisions are made collectively but each state retains control, often seen in bodies like the UN.

Sovereignty

authority of a state to govern itself without external interference. During European integration debate arose over how much sovereignty member states should cede to supranational organizations like the European Economic Community (EEC).

The Hague conference

1948, meeting of European leaders + intellectuals to discuss European Unity after WWII. The conference emphasized economic cooperation, federalism, and human rights groundwork for the establishment of organizations such as the European council.

Birth of the council of Europe

1949, aimed to promote democracy, human rights, and rules of law across Europe. An early step towards European integration  later economic focus of the EU.

Schuman declaration

statement by French Foreign minister Robert Schuman in 1950 proposing the pooling of coal and steel production between France and Germany. This led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), considered a foundational moment for the EU.

ECSC

1951, supranational organization uniting coal and steel production in 6 European countries. It aimed to foster economic cooperation and prevent war by integrating key industries essential for military power.

European Defence Community

proposed plan in the early 1950s to create a unified European army under supranational control. EDC failed to materialize after France refused to ratify the treaty, reflecting tensions over national sovereignty in post war Europe.

Treaty of Rome

1957, founding treaty of the EEC and the Euratom. Marked a major step toward European integration, creating a common market to foster economic cooperation and reduce trade barriers.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

1962, as part of European integration, CAP aimed to stabilize agricultural markets, increase food security and productivity, and ensure a fair standard of living for farmers  became one of the EUs key policies.

Maastricht Treaty

1992, treaty that established the EU  laid groundwork for a single currency, the Euro. It deepened European integration by expanding cooperation into new areas like policy and justice.

Welfare state

a system in which the government assumes responsibility for the well-being of its citizens, providing services like healthcare, education and social security. Post war Europe was expanded as part of the reconstruction effort and to promote social cohesion during Cold War tensions.

Glorious Thirty

1945 to 1973, this era saw unprecedented economic growth, industrial expansion, and rising living standards in Western Europe, driven by the reconstruction, technological progress, and Marshall Plan aid (Wirtschaftswunder).

Consumer society

society characterized by mass consumption of consumer goods and services, which emerged in Europe during the “Glorious Thirty”. Rising incomes improved production, focused on leisure, reshaped lifestyles to more consumption-based living and thus also changed cultural norms.

Beginning of Environmentalism

1960s-70s, growing awareness of environmental degradation led to an emergence of environmentalism in Europe. Events like pollution crises and rising concerns over heavy industrialization spurred activism and the beginning of policy changes.

May 68 (68ers)

series of protests, strikes and uprisings across Western Europe starting in France during May of 1968, driven by students and workers discontent with traditional structures, capitalism, and outdated cultural norms. The movement symbolized broader cultural and political shifts in Europe, including calls for reforms and liberation.

Mass immigration in Europe

post war Europe experienced large scale immigration, including labor immigrants from former colonies and Southern Europe, and later refugees. This immigration supported economic growth but also reshaped demographics and raised cultural and political challenges.

Tertiarization

shift from industrial economies to service-based economies in Europe, particularly after WWII. This transformation saw the growth of sectors like finance, education, and healthcare, accompanied by changes in employment patterns and social structures.

Social situation of Women

after 1945, women in Europe experienced significant social changes, including greater access to education and employment, the legalization of contraception and abortion, and the shifts in traditional gender roles, influenced by feminism and economic transformations.

Feminism

a movement advocating for gender equality and women’s rights which gained momentum in post war Europe, particularly during the 1960s-1970s (second wave of Feminism). Feminism challenged legal, social, and cultural discrimination, achieving milestones in areas like workplace equality and reproductive rights.

Sexual Revolution

period of cultural changes during the 60s-70s that challenged traditional norms regarding sexuality and relationships. Influenced by feminist and youth movements, access to contraception, and liberalizing attitudes the revolution reshaped European cultural and social landscapes.

Integration

the process of countries coming together politically, economically or socially, most notably in the context of the EU to create shared institutions and policies

Enlargement

the expansion of the EU through the addition of new member states. Each wave of enlargement involves negotiations and the alignment pf candidate countries with EU standards.

Euroscepticism

a critical or oppositional attitude towards the EU and European integration. It ranges from criticism of specific EU policies to a rejection of the EU as a whole.

Schengen Agreements

first signed in Schengen Luxembourg in 1985, it is the treaties that led to the creation of Europes Schengen Area, allowing passport free movement across many European countries.

Copenhagen criteria

the rules that define whether a country is eligible to join the EU. These include stable democratic governance, a functioning market economy and acceptance of EU laws and norms.

Eurozone

The group of EU countries that use the Euro (€) as their official currency. It involves deeper economic and monetary integration of countries participating in it.

Draft European Constitution

An attempt to create a unified constitution, 2005, for the EU, aiming to simplify treaties and improve decision making. It was ultimately rejected by referendums in France and the Netherlands.

Migration crisis

2015, a period marked by a large influx of refugees and migrants into the EU, primarily from Syria, Afghanistan and other war-torn regions, causing political, humanitarian and policy challenges for many countries in the EU. It showed a divided approach in which every country worked primarily for themselves rather than for the good of the Union.

Brexit

The UKs withdrawal from the EU, formally completed in 2020. It highlighted deep divisions over sovereignty, immigration and economic policy.

European identity

a shared sense of belonging or cultural identity among the peoples of Europe, often discussed in the context of the EUs efforts to create unity despite national differences.

Nationalism

A political ideology focused on promoting the interests and culture of one’s nation, most often at the expense of international cooperation and integration such as with the EU.

Populism

a political approach that claims to represent the “common people” against the “elites”. Populist parties can exist across the political spectrum but is usually found in the far right. It often fools people with the pretense that there are very simple solutions to very complex issues when in fact this is just a mirage and is used to grab power and turn over anti-democratic and fascist ideas. More often than not populism is found to criticize the EU as it is easier to blame than the people.

Abstentionism

the act of not voting in elections, often used as a form of political protest or disillusionment with the political system.

Communitarianism

a political philosophy emphasizing the importance of community and social cohesion over individualism supporting the claims of the EU to be united in diversity.

Rise of Extremism

an increase in support of political movements that hold radical views, often authoritarian or exclusionary, threatening democratic values and social stability. Sadly, a trend seen in Europe over the recent few years with the multitude of crises causing more and more damage to social cohesion and blowing a sentiment of divide into Europe.

Conspiracy theories

beliefs that events or situations are secretly manipulated by powerful groups, oftentimes without any evidence. These lunatics undermine the trust in governmental institutions like, for example, the EU.

Disinformation

Due to the recent advancements in information technology and the spread of alternative media, there has been a huge influx of false information leading to confusion and divide. It is a growing concern in political discourse, especially during elections and crises.

Foundation of the Peoples Republic of China

October 1st, 1949, Mao Zedong marked the establishment of a communist government in China after the Chinese Communist Partys (CCP) victory over the nationalists in the Chinese Civil War. It began Chinas alignment with the Soviet Union during the early stages of the Cold War.

Chinese Civil War

1945-1949, conflict between the CCP, led by Mao Zedong and the nationalist GMD, led by Chiang Kai Shek, resumed after WWII. It ended with the CCPs victory and the establishment of the Peoples Republic of China, while the GMD retreated to Taiwan.

Maoism

variant of communism emphasizing the role of peasants in the revolution, the continuing revolution, mass mobilization, and self-reliance. It shaped Chinas domestic policies and revolutionary movements globally during the Cold War

Mass mobilization

strategy used by Mao to engage a large number of people in political campaigns and economic projects. It emphasized collective effort and ideological commitment, as seen by the land reforms and early industrialization drives.

Hundred Flowers Campaign

1956-57, brief period where Mao encouraged intellectuals and citizens to express their opinions about the government. However, when criticism grew, the campaign was followed by a mass crackdown on dissent, stifling free expression.

Great Leap Forward

1958-62, economic and social campaign initiated by Mao to rapidly industrialize and collectivize agriculture. It aimed to surpass Western economies but lead to widespread famine and economic failure, causing millions of deaths.

Chinese involvement in the Korean/Vietnam wars

China entered the Korean war (1950-53) to support North Korea and counter US influence, solidifying its role as a major Cold War power. In Vietnam, China provided material and logistical support to North Vietnam during its struggle against US forces, bolstering communist solidarity in Asia.

Ping-Pong Diplomacy

A term referring to the exchange of ping-pong players between US and China in the early 70s which led to an improvement in Sino-American relations and was moving away from the isolationist China due to the Sino-Russian split. This led to the eventual visit of Nixon to China in 1972 and the recognition of China in the UN.

Cultural Revolution

1966-1976, a sociopolitical movement launched by Mao Zedong to enforce communism by removing capitalist and traditional elements from society. It led to the formation of the Red Guard, a student movement, which caused widespread chaos, persecution of Intellectuals, and the destruction of cultural heritage.

Little Red Book

A pocket-sized book of quotations by Mao (that he wrote after the failure of the Great Leap Forward), used first as propaganda and then as the main symbol of the cultural revolution. It symbolized loyalty to Mao and became the icon of communist ideology in China.

Deng Xiaoping´s reforms

1978-89, Economic and political reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping to modernize China after the rule of Mao. These included opening the country to foreign trade, introducing market orientated policies, and allowing limited private enterprises while maintaining absolute political control over the CCP.

Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

designated areas in China, such as Shenzhen, established in the 80s to attract foreign investment and technology. SEZs were characterized by economic liberalization and policies different from the rest of China. They played a key role in Chinas economic growth after Mao.

Socialist market economy

A unique economic system in China blending socialist principles with market-based practices. Under this model, the government retains control over key sectors while allowing private enterprises and competition in other areas.

Tiananmen Square crackdown

1989, A violent suppression of pro-democracy protests in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square, where students and workers demanded political reform. The military intervention resulted in numerous deaths and widespread condemnation from the international community.

Opening of the Shanghai Stock exchange

(SSE) was officially opened on December 19., 1990, as a part of Chinas economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping. It marked a significant step in the transition from a planned economy to a market-orientated system, allowing domestic and foreign investors to trade stocks in China.

Chinas entry to the WTO

2001 China joined the World Trade organization on December 11., 2001 after extensive negotiations. This accession integrated China into the global economy, led to a surge in foreign investment and facilitated Chinas rapid economic growth by expanding its imports and reducing trade barriers.

Chinas Africa policy

refers to its strategic economic, political and diplomatic engagement with African nations, emphasizing trade, infrastructure investment, resource extraction and diplomatic ties. This policy is driven by Chinas need for raw materials, new markets and geopolitical influence. Often through initiative like the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC)

String of Pearls strategy

The “String of Pearls” strategy describes Chinas efforts to establish a network of military and commercial facilities along key maritime routes in the Indian Ocean. This includes strategic ports in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Djibouti, aimed at securing Chinas energy supply lines and expanding geopolitical influence.

New Silk Roads (Belt and Road initiative, BRI)

launched in 2013, is Chinas global infrastructure and economic development project. It seeks to improve trade routes and connectivity across Asia, Africa and Europe through investments in railways, highways, ports, and digital infrastructure.

Chinas space policy

focuses on achieving technological self-sufficiency, military advancements and scientific exploration. Key milestones include the Chang’e lunar missions, the BeiDou satellite navigation system, the Tiangong space station and Mars exploration (Tianwen-1 mission)

Hard Power

refers to a nations ability to influence others through coercion, military force, and economic pressure. Chinas hard power is evident in its military modernization, territorial claims in the South China Sea and economic sanctions.

Soft Power

is the ability to influence others through culture, diplomacy and economic appeal rather than coercion. Chinas soft power strategies include Confucius Institutes, global media influence, international student exchanges and aid diplomacy.

Restitution of Hong Kong and Macao

(1997,1999) Hong Kong was handed back from British to Chinese sovereignty on July 1., 1997 under the principle “One Country, Two Systems” ensuring economic and political autonomy for 50 years //Macao, a former Portuguese colony, was returned to China on December 20., 1999 with far less complications

Beijing Olympic games

2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing showcases Chinas economic rise and global ambitions. It was marked by impressive infrastructure projects, including the Birds Nest Stadium and the Water Cube and was seen as Chinas diplomatic and cultural coming-out event to the world.

Nationalism

a political and ideological movement that emerged in colonialized regions, advocating for self-rule, cultural pride, and the creation of independent nation states free from colonial domination

Nationalist leaders

Key political figures who led anti-colonial struggles and independence movements. They mobilized populations against the colonial rule using political activism and mass movements. Examples include

San Francisco conference

1945, the meeting that founded the United Nations. While primarily focused on global peace post WWII, it indirectly supported decolonization by promoting self determination and human rights.

Bandung conference

1955, A landmark conference of Asian and African states (many recently decolonized) aiming to promote solidarity, oppose colonialism, and avoid Cold War alignment. It led to the Non-Alignment Movement.

Non-Alignment

A policy adopted by many newly independent countries to remain neutral during the Cold War, avoiding alignment to either the US-led capitalist bloc or the Soviet-led communist bloc. It emphasized sovereignty and development without interference.

Independence process

the political, social and often military journey towards sovereignty from colonial powers. This process includes negotiations, revolts, referenda, and international diplomacy.

Economic dependance

many postcolonial nations tied to former colonial economies through Export-based economies, Reliance on foreign aid or investment, Continued use of colonial currencies or trade structures

Other dependencies (technological, military)

Technological

Third World

originally a Cold War term for nations not aligned with NATO or Warsaw Pact. Later associated with newly decolonized, developing nations facing poverty, instability and neocolonial pressures.

Development

postcolonial efforts to improve living standards, infrastructure, health and education. Heavily influenced by international aid, IMF/World Bank policies and Cold War geopolitics.

Corruption

a major challenge in many postcolonial states where weak institutions, lack of transparency and foreign interference undermined governance and public trust.

Kleptocracy

a system of governance where state leaders exploit national resources for personal gain. Often linked to authoritarian regimes and foreign backed elites in post-independence colonial states.

Plurality of memories

the idea that there is not one single national history but multiple perspectives- especially regarding colonial legacies. Includes indigenous, subaltern and gendered memories of colonialism and resistance.

Restitution of cultural property

the return of cultural artifacts, artworks and heritage items taken by colonial powers. A key issue in postcolonial justice and recognition of historical exploitation.

Demands of reparations

claims made by formerly colonized countries or peoples for compensation, apology, or restorative justice in response to the exploitive and violent legacy of colonial rule.

Racism

a structural and ideological tool of colonialism used to justify domination. Postcolonial societies grapple with internalized racism, racial inequality, and continued global racial hierarchies.

Capitalism

Eco system w private ownership of means of prod, profit-driven enterprise, market-based resource allocation;; emphasised min gov intervention, allowing supply and demand to determines prices, production, distribution of g\&s

Communism

Socie-eco ide advocating for classless society where means of prod collect owned/controlled by state or community; seeks to abolish private property, aims equitable distribution of wealth achieved through centrally planned eco

Market Economy

Eco system in which decisions (production, distr, cons of g\&s) by forces of demand and supply, comp in free markets, individuals and bizs own property and resources, gments role limited to enforcing laws, protecting property rights, mainting eco stability

Planned Eco

Eco system w gov centrally controls production distr and pricing of g\&ss, decision made according to national eco plan, X w market forces of d\&s, aim to achieve collective welfare, eliminate class disparities, and ensure equal access to resources

Truman Doctrine

Harry S Truman, March 12 1947, foreign policy, est principle of providing political military and economic assistance to countries resisting communism part targeting Soviet influence, aimed to contain spread of com by supporting nations threated by external and internal

Containment

George f kenan (career foreign service officer), confidential “long telegram” feb 56, made formal march 47 Truman

Marshal Plan

June 5 1947 (speech at harvard uni), European Recovery plan (erp), George C Marshall (Sec of state), Harry S Truman, US initiative to provide economic aid to rebuild western Europe afte ww2, implemented 1948 to 1952, allocated 13 bil to stabilise economies, rebuild infra, prevent spread, also offered to east but pressured to refuse, 16 countries

Zhdanov Doctrine

Andrei Zhdanov, USSR politician, cultural and ideological policy articulated 46; world divided into 2 opposing camps, imperialist camp US, democratic camp USSR, emphasied strict control over art, culture, intellecal life in Union and satellite states to reinforce socialist ideo and oppose west, Joseph stalin supportedt

Popular democracies

Com gments east eu under soviet influence; presented as legitimate, democratic states, but in realit operated as 1pstate controlled by local com ps loyal to Moscow

Berlin Blockade

24.06.48-12.05.49, 1st major crisis of cw, USSR stalin imposed blockade of all rail road and canal access to west berlin, aimed to force west (US Truman UK Attlee FR) to abandon berlin, responded w berlin airlift, supplying city by air for almost a year