AP Psych review (pt.2): Research, Development, Stress, and Personality

Contains chapters: 1, 5, 12 (stress section only), and 14

Hindsight Bias

the tendency to believe that you saw it coming after learning the outcome

Theory

explanation using and integrated set of principles

Hypothesis

a testable prediction

Operational definition

a statement of the exact procedures used in a study

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study

Case study

a descriptive technique where one individual or group is studied

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in a natural situation

survey

a descriptive way of obtaining self-reported behavior

Random sample

a sample that represents the population fairly

correlation coefficient

the number showing how strong or weak a relationship is

illusory correlation

seeing a relationship where there is none

regression towards the mean

the tendency for scores to fall toward the average

experiment

research method where an investigator manipulates one or more factors

experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment or one version the the independent variable

control group

the group which is used to compare and evaluate; they aren’t given the treatment

range

difference between the highest and lowest numbers

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean

dependent variable

the outcome that is measured; may change when the ind. variable is manipulated

confounding variable

a factor that may influence or sway the study’s outcome

independent variable

within an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied

statistical significance

Developmental psychology

Focuses on the physical, cognitive, and social change throughout one’s life

Cognition

all mental activities

maturation

biological growth process that enable changes in behavior

schema

a concept of framework which organizes information

habituation

decrease in responsiveness with repeated stimulation

teratogens

harmful substances like chemicals

Fetus

developing human from 9 weeks to birth

Embryo

developing human from two weeks after fertilization

Zygote

the fertilized egg; inters rapid two week cell division

Sensorimotor stage

first stage in Piaget’s theory from birth to two years of age; key milestones include stranger anxiety and object permanence

Object permanence

being are that things continue to exist when not perceived

Preoperational stage

Piaget’s second stage from two to six; key milestones include pretend play and egocentrism

Theory of mind

when one can now predict the feelings of others

Concrete operational

Piaget’s third stage from seven to eleven; key milestones include conservation and mathematical transformations

Formal operational

Piaget’s final stage from twelve years and on; key milestones include abstract thinking and

Scaffold

Within Vygotsky’s theory, a framework that offers children support as the rise to higher levels of thinking

attachment

an emotional tie with another person

accommodation

adapting our current schemas to incorporate new information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of existing schemas

basic trust

according to Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy

Self-concept

all our thoughts and feeling about ourselves

adolescence

the transition from childhood to adulthood from puberty to independence

identity

our sense of self

social identity

the “we” aspect of our self concept

emerging adulthood

a period from around eighteen to mid-twenties where one is no longer an adolescent but has not fully reached independence

Cross-sectional study

research that compares different ages at the same period of time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

neurocognitive disorder

acquired disorders marked by cognitive defects

Social clock

culturally preferred timing of social events

Eustress

good stress; inludes leaving for collage, marriage, etc…

Distress

bad stress; includes illness, financial problems, etc…

Two types of stress

Eustress and distress

sources of stress

major life changes, daily hassles, social or cultural, and conflict

General Adaptation syndrome (GAS)

describes the process your body goes through when you are exposed to any kind of stress both positive and negative

The cycle of GAS

Alarm > Resistance > exhaustion

Tend and befriend

in times of stress women give support and bond

B-lymphocites

releases antibodies that fight bacterial infections

T-lymphocytes

attack cancerous cells and other foreigners

Type A:

Hard-driving, competitive, impatient, super motivated, and verbally aggressive

Type B:

easy going, not as time conscious, easy temper, not excessively competitive, and can calmly wait

problem-focused coping

managing or changing a threat by directly dealing with the problem

Emotion-focused coping

relieving or regulating the emotional impact of the problem by crying, going to therapy, etc…

internal locus of control

we feel that we are in charge of ourselves and our circumstances

external locus of control

we picture that a force outside of ourselves controls our fate

Explanatory style

The way that you routinely explain your life circumstances to yourself whether its optimistic and pessimistic

Activities that reduce stress

Aerobic exercise, relaxation, meditation, and religion/faith factor

Psychodynamic

explores the unconscious

humanistic

making humans better

Psychoanalytic perspective

Sigmund Freud’s theory that proposes childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality

Psychoanalysis

Techniques used to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Free association

a method of exploring the unconscious within psychoanalysis

contemporary viewpoint

information processing of which we are unaware

Id

strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; “I want IT now”

Ego

mediates among the demands of the demands of the id, ego, and reality

Superego

provides standards for judgment aka the conscience

Defense mechanisms

the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Repression

mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

Regression

when one faces with anxiety tends to retreat to a more infantile stage

Reaction Formation

mechanism where ego switches unacceptable impulses into their opposite or expressing feelings opposite of how you are feeling

Projection

mechanism where people disguise their own impulses by attributing them to others; justifying ones own behavior

Rationalization

mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real reasons (cognitive dissonance)

Displacement

mechanism that shifts impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

Denial

when one is unable to face reality or admit the truth

sublimation

taking unacceptable impulses and turning them into behavior that is more acceptable

Projective tests

a personality test like the Rorschach or TAT that provides unclear stimuli to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective tests where people express their inner feeling through the stories they create about unclear photos or scenes

Rorchach Inkblot test

projective test that seeks to identify peoples inner feelings base on their interpretation of ink blots

Alfred Adler

studied the importance of childhood social tensions and talked about the inferiority complex

Karen Horney

sought to balance Freud’s masculine bias

Carl Jung

emphasized the collective unconscious

Humanistic perspective

focuses on the potential for healthy growth

Abraham Maslow

created the hierarchy of needs and studied those who he believed were self-actualized

Carl Rogers

person-centered perspective; focused on growth and self fulfillment

Gordon Allport

first to express his believe on fundamental traits or peoples characteristics

personality inventory

a survey to asses feelings and behaviors

MMPI

used to be set up in order to identify emotional disorders

OCEAN

Acronym for the big five

Ocean

Openness: imaginative, likes to explore, and independent minded

oCean

Conscientiousness: being responsible, dependable, careful, hardworking, and organized