Relationships

( AO1) what is sexual selection

Characteristics that increase our chance of reproduction are passed on through generations such as male aggression

(AO1) what is anisogamy

difference between male and female sex cells ( sperm and ovum) creates different reproduction strategies and partner preferences

sperm → high quantity and little energy

Ovum → small quantity and produced in limited years

(AO1) types of sexual selection

Intra-selection

Inter-selection

( AO1) what is inter- sexual selection

female strategy → due to greater investment ( more energy into development of ova ) more selective with partner ( longer courtships)

Genetically fit partner who can provide resources ( sexy sons hypothesis)

(AO1) what is intra- sexual selection

Male strategy → quantity over quality

men are competing for females in order to pass on genes

What is the evolutionary theory of relationships

Sexual selection

(AO1) sexual selection what are differences in partner preference

Males → youth and fertility, 7: 10 Hip to waist ratio

Females → Genetically fit with resources

(AO3) what studies support sexual selection theory

Clark → 75% of men agreed to have sex with stranger while no females agreed

Buss → self-report survey over 33 countries found out

female → financial stability and ambition

male → younger / fertile attractive women

(AO3) limitations sexual selection

L: Low temporal validity as women are becoming more financially stable and independent → smaller emphasise on male resources

What factor affects attraction

Self-disclosure

filter theory

( AO1) what is self- disclosure

Gradually revealing personal information to increase trust and intimacy between partners

( AO1) What is social penetration theory

Gradually revealing experiences and emotions increases trust

more reciprocal sharing = more trust

Positive correlation between the depth and breadth of sharing and increasing quality and trust

( AO1) Negatives of self-disclosure

Too much self-disclosure too early into a relationship can be detrimental

(AO3) study supporting self-disclosure theory

Hass → Relationships with high levels of commitment and intimacy use self-disclosure to maintain it ( practical application)

( AO3) advantages and disadvantages of Self-disclosure theory

A: real life application → used in couples therapies increase trust → increases validity of self disclosure / Social penetration

L: all correlational data no cause and effect reduces internal validity

L: Culture bias → based on western and individualist cultures.

Tang et al → China and USA have equal relationship satisfactory even though USA disclose more suggests other factors such as physical attractiveness have greater or equal value

what are the theories of romantic relationships

SET

Equity theory

investment model

Ducks phase model

(AO1) what is the basis principle of SET

its a economic theory, people in relationships seek exchange they based on our CBA

SET (AO1) what is the minmax principle

we try to minimise our costs and maximise profits in relationships

SET ( AO1) how is satisfaction in a relationship created

when Profits are greater then costs = satisfaction

(AO1) Examples of profits and costs in SET

Profit → companionship , sex

Costs → stress, time

(AO1) SET how are profits measured

Comparison levels → based on previous relationships / movies

alternatives → stay in relationship because more profitable then alt

( AO1) what are the stages of relationships

Sampling stage

Bargaining stage

Commitment stage

institutionalisation stage

rewards increase through the stages every relationship must go through to develop

( AO1) SET what happens in the Sampling stage ?

Explore costs and profit through experimenting or observing

( AO1) SET what happens in the Bargaining stage ?

Beginning of the relationship → Social exchange starts

( AO1) SET what happens in the Commitment stage ?

Cost and profits are predictable → rewards increase , costs decrease

( AO1) SET what happens in the Institutionalisation stage ?

Costs and profit is now established

partners are settled

(AO3) what are the studies in SET

Sprecher → best predictor for satisfaction is when profits exceed costs.

101 relationships → satisfaction is low one partner believed losses exceeded profit

(AO3) Limitations and advantages of SET

A: greatest strength explanation why people stay in abusive relationships → Practical applications used to develop help programmes

L: Cause and effect issues → data relies on self-report techniques as SET is abstract

L: Reductionist → simplifies complex romantic relationships to profit and reward ignores with cognitive issues such as equity and sense of fairness

( AO1) basic principles of equity theory

Perceived Economic fairness → Costs and profits should be equal in a relationships → satisfaction

(AO1) Equity theory what does a lack of equity cause

Over benefitting or under benefitting in relationship

Over → cause guilt in relationship

Under → resentment

(AO3) what studies support equity theory

Utne → Satisfied marriages valued equity as relationship success ( ecological validity real life) self report in 118 marriages

(AO3) Limitations and Advantages for Equity theory

L: idiographic approach rather than monoethnic → Equity in loving relationships is emotional and unquantifiable

L: Cultural relativity as evidence from YARVIS populations cant be extrapolated to everyone

(AO1) Ducks phase model what are the stages of a relationship break down ( Dissolution)

Intrapsychic stage → contemplate dissatisfaction in relationship ( internally)

Dyadic stage → confront partner and voice dissatisfaction

Social stage → Make concerns / break up public

Grave-dressing → constructing own version of events → make yourself look better

(AO3) limitations and advantages of Ducks phase model ( Dissolution)

A: Practical application → utilised by relationship counsellors to reverse stages and repair relationships

L: methodological issues → all retrospective , self-report evidence → social desirability bias → less reliable

L: Psychologists suggest may be a resurrection phase due to model oversimplifying

learn from experience in new relationship

L: culture bias → arranged marriages don`t folllow

(AO1) Invest model (Image)

(AO1) Investment model what are the factors that effect commitment

Investment

Satisfaction

Alternatives

( AO1) Investment model how does satisfaction influence commitment

Based on comparison level → profit exceeds costs

getting more from previous relationship

( AO1) Investment model how does Alternatives influence commitment

Alternative options ( new partner or single) Costs exceed Profits then stay in relationship

( AO1) Investment model what are the two types of Investments and example

Intrinsic → put directly into relationship ( money, energy, time)

Extrinsic → Created from relationship ( Children, mutually owned house)

(AO3) studies supporting Investment model

Agnew → meta analysis 52 studies over 5 countries discovered Commitment was best predictor for stable, long lasting relationships → high validity.

(AO3) Limitations and Advantages of Investment model

L: lack of cause and effect → all strong correlational research → states what is associated with commitment not creates it.

A: Practical applications for police / social workers understand why people stay in abusive relationships and offer support

L: Long term relationships may be based on equity

Cultural relativity → population bias YARVIS

Why do humans match ( attractive - attractive / ugly - ugly) when looking for partners ( AO1)

Rejection is traumatic so we try to avoid it by settling for someone at our level

attractive-attractive → balanced relationship easier to maintain.

what is meant by matching (AO1)

We seek partners who are similar to our own perceived attractiveness

( Filter theory) what are the main filters ( AO1)

Social demography

Similarity in attitudes

Complementarity → need to complement each other, adds depth to relationship

( Filter theory) what is social demography and why is it important

location / religion → relationships need accessibility and understanding each others experiences

( Filter theory) what is similar attitudes and why is it important

same values and beliefs

( Filter theory) what is Complementarity and why is it important

need to complement each other, adds depth to relationship

limitations of ALL evolutionary explanations

ALL lack falsifiability required to be seen as scientific. A large body of evidence cant demonstrate a cause and effect relationship.

what are virtual relationships ?

Relationships that begin and function online

what type of people are more likely to be virtual relationships ( AO1)

Introverts

Insecure- resistant attachment type

social awkwardness

How are virtual relationships different to physical relationships? ( AO1)

Textual intonations are important

emoji substitute facial expressions

Greater emphasise on response timing

engage in selective self-presentation

(Virtual relationships) what is disinhibition and what does it lead to? (AO1)

disinhibition can occur due to anonymity and deindividuation

lead to increase in aggressive / not kind comments ( trolling)

(Virtual relationships) what is the reduced cues theory ( AO1)

due to disinhibition → people say and do things they wouldn’t normally?

( Virtual relationships) self- disclosure ( AO1)

more intense and happens quicker lead to better, deeper VR

( Virtual relationships) Gating ( AO1)

Gates are barriers that normally restrict formation of relationships speech - > defect introverts social awkwardness

In VR there’s a absence of Gates

Research evidence for VR ( AO3)

Mckenna → Relationships that originate online are most durable

Bargh → VR develop faster due to increased intimacy then IRL

What are Para-social relationships ( AO1)

Object of a PSR is largely unaware of the existence of person

factors that increase likelihood of forming a PSR increased ( AO1)

object of affection is attractive / high status

perceived similarity

lonely / shy man forming PSR with women

what are the 3 stages of a PSR (AO1)

Entertainment social

intense-personal

borderline- pathological

what is the entertainment - social ( PSR) ( AO1)

Keep up with celebrity for entertainment and gossip

what is the intense-personal ( PSR) ( AO1)

intensive and compulsive feelings towards celebrity

what is the borderline-pathological ( PSR) ( AO1)

Empathise with failures and successes

over- identification and uncontrollable behaviour

fantasies about celebrities life.

What is the explanations for PSR ( AO1)

Adsorption- addiction model

what is the adsorption- addiction model ( AO1)

Adsorption → following celebrity hides them from their own unfulfilled life → find this rewarding so become more, more consumed

Addiction → Gain a dependency on celebrity life as they need to sustain commitment to relationship as primary source of reward

(PSR) how can Bowlby theory be linked to PSR

insecure- resistant → Greater need for fulfilment in PSR without being rejected

attachment issues → poor IWM

Research for PSR ( AO3)

Meloy → strong evidence links stalking to social incompetence

Greenwood → PSR is a mechanism for dealing with recent loneliness / loss

Limitations and advantages of VR ( AO3)

A: Social benefits → help reduce loneliness and easier then IRL relationships

L: Low temporal validity as VR is changing so video calling invalidates a lot of the absence of gating

L: Low Populational validity → due to more young people engaging in social media

groups are over-represented in research ( introverts)

Limitations and Advantages of PSR ( AO3)

A: celebrity attitude scale very useful → contains distractors to remove response bias

makes distinctions between pathological relationships and none

L: EV such as impulsive personalities aren’t controlled → leads to high intense-personal score on CAS even without PSR

L: Adsorption- addiction model is a description doesn’t provide explanation. No practical application or solutions

L: adsorption- addiction model views PSR as pathological / could be argued that PSR are safe exploration of emotion and are positive / no longer lonely.

why are VR relationships different from IRL

state of disinhibition so we are either hyper - honest/ dis-honest

more self-disclosure

absence of gates

selective- self presentation