COGS 200 Knowledge Representation

IWA2

What are the 4 philosophical theories of the mind?

• (Interactionist) Dualism

• (Philosophical) Behaviourism

• (Type) Identity Theory

• (Machine) Functionalism

What does the beetle in a box thought experiment is what an objects which philosophical theory?

Wittgenstien imagines; Group of people in box, content of box is beetles, but no one knows exactly what a beetle is and each person can only see their own beetle. Asks what if the beetle in my box is not a beetle at all, or if beetle in my box isn't same as beetle in yours?

• Limits of communicating personal experiences

• Language depends on shared practices as even if all have something different in box can still use word beetle meaningfully as share same public framework for language

  • Meaning is shaped by social interaction and shared understanding

What is dualism and what are some traits regarding it?

• Mind and body are seperate

• Widely held among non philosophers due to religion

• Minds are metaphysically free

• Mentality is subjective whilst physicality is objective

What is behaviourism and some traits regarding it?

Claims internal minds are about external behaviour pattern

• Mentality is external

• Performance matters to tell that a person remembers something especially for propositional attitudes

What is an objection to behaviourism?

• Doesn’t account for senses where mind is internal arena (introspection can occur, expressions/emotions can be fabricated/withheld)

  • Ex. Can feel pain and not cry

  • Argues to feel pain is to cry

What is type identity theory and traits for it?

Minds are brain and thoughts are brain states/processes

• Mental states are identical to various brain states or processes

• Tries to synthesize first and third person

• Accommodates slippage between thought and action unlike behaviourism

What are some objections to identity theory?

Restricts application of intelligence to creatures with a brain like us

• Systems lacking brain could also be intelligent (machines, plants)

• They’re made out of meat; “wouldn’t any system, perhaps a mechanical or electronic system, that performe the same functions as a brain count as intelligent too?

What is machine Functionalism and traits of it?

Whatever does a mind’s job is a mind

• Compatible with dualism as feels minds are absstractions and not physical systems

• No need to have brain material (neurons, etc) to think

What is one caution with the functionalism theory?

• Not committed to physicalism (view that all things including mental states is purely physical)

• Opens possibility for dualism (not true)

• Allows something non physical (computer program) to have mind

  • Implies minds could exist independt of physical system asosciated with human consciousness and cognition

How are minds computers?

• Thinking is computating (processing info)

• Brain is an info processing system

What is epistemology?

The idea that knowledge is justified, true belief (Plato)

• K(nowledge) = J(ustified) T(rue) B(elief)

Ex. Oksana says there are more than 7000 languages spoken in the world today

• Believes it

• It is true

• She has good reason (justification) to think it is true

  • thus, knowledge

Ex. barn aint a barn, lottery ticket

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What is a counter example of epistemology?

Gettier mirage water case; In desert, need water, see water, it’s a mirage, but when reach spot get lucky and find water under a rock

What is current defintion of knowledge?

Unsure, tough to distinct from mere beleif or JTB, still an open question

What is our focus on for knowledge representation?

Factual knowledge; beleiving that a proposition or statement is true

What is intellectualism?

Knowing a fact (person, location, skill)

What was the Snyder typist study about?

Skilled typists explict knowledge of key locations is incomplete and inaccurate, but likely have strong implcit knowledge (motor and procedural knowledge)

• A lot of what we do is relying on implicity knowledge

• Some skills cannot easily be taught via explicity instruction

  • Repetition and practie are key

What is the remembering first approach?

Concept in learning emphasizing memorization as the foundation for deeper understanding and critical thinking

• Used as foundation, reduces cognitive load, retreives quicker

• Counter to discovery learning

What is the Martin and Deutscher’s approach?

Remembering needs a causal connection between an experiences and a recollection

What is the difference between continiusm and discontiniusm in episodic simulation?

Memory and imagination is a continous spectrum of mental processes

• Ex. When remember childhood home, reconstructing image based on fragments of stored info (similar to imaging houose living in future)

  • Memory is not a perfect recording of past rather dynamic like imagination

Memory and imagination are different cognitive processes with distinct roles

• Ex. Recall wedding day, retrieve specific event occurred (imagine wedding in future is creative construction)

  • Memory and imagination shouldnt be treated as same thing because serve different purposes

What is autonoesis?

Awareness of one’s own existence in time (many animals lack)

War of the ghosts experiment shows what 3 ways a story may change?

Study; Read stories twice, study pictures for 4 minutes, reproduce all instances starting 15 minutes after original reading

• Changes 1 person makes tends to reproduce by reason of rpt reproductions

• Results of numeroous successive changes introduced when a series of reproductions are obtained from differnt people

• Changes caused by both above

implications of repeated reproduction by same individual

• Often preserves peculiar phrase intact even when more key moments are distorted

• Earlier version gets more important as time elapses

• Visual imagery is active longer and rationlisation occurs

What are the differnt potencies of events in serial reproduction?

• Under potent is omitted

• Normally potent is reproduced

• Over potent dominates narration

What tends to be omitted in serial reproduction of stories?

• Omission of the irrelevant

• Omission of the unfamiliar

• Omission of the unpleasant

What is their a tendency of in stories?

To create a moral

How are some ways misunderstandings occur in stories?

• Persistence of detail; some details may seem objectively trivial but hold subjective significance for person reproducing

  • Case 1; person is aware of singiicance when recalling

  • Case 2; person unknowinlgy includes significant details but importance is hidden

  • Case 3; some details stay in memory despite being objectively and subjectively trivial

• Transpositon; errors in memory where details are affected

  • Duplicated in extra places

  • Omitted from place belong

  • Moved to different location

  • Altered, combined, or condensed

How does serial position affect recollection?

Effect of different retention intervals in seconds on recency effect

What is the primacy effect?

Tendency to remember info presented first

• Empty storage capacity, view as most important

What happens when a task inteferes with rehearsal of words?

The recency effect is eliminated

What is the multi store model of memory?

What case study shows neuropscyhological evidence of 2 memory systems?

Henry Gustav Molison; had hippocampus and nearby structures removed

• Has amnesia, lsot ability to form new memories

What are effects of damage to hippocampus?

• Antegrade amnesia; no abiity to form new long term memories

• Retrograde amnesia; no ability to recall past events, info, expereinces before amnesia

What forms of long term memory are there + sub categories?

Declarative/explicity (semantic + episodic) and non declarative/implicit (Proecdural + Conditioning + Priming)

What is semantic memory?

Mental thesaurus, facts + info

What is episodic memory?

Memory of things you experienced

What is procedural memory?

Muscle memory

What was the case of Clive Wearing?

Herpes led to massive damage to hippocampus and temporal lobes leading to antegrade and retrograde amnesia

• Retained procedural memory like playing music

What is priming (memory)

FIlling in blanks using prior knowledge

What is a procedural memory brain structures?

Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum

• Packing, selection, activation, inhiition of behavioural routines

• Disorered may lead to Parkinson, Huntington, Tourette

What are some forms of mental representations?

• Format of info for computers (image, text, sound, files)

• Format representation dtr what type of info is kept or lost and what’s easy and hard to compute

What is the phonological loop as a form of working memory?

Holding words (speech and sound) in memory activates speech areas of brain (Broca’s area)

• Memory for words or digits can be disrupted by repetition of a syllable

What is mental imagery in terms of working memory?

Visual sketchpad holding visual patterns in memory which don’t intefere with rmemebring lists of words

Who discovered magic number of verbal working memory?

George Miller; 7 ± 2 Chunks

How do different languages differ in the prediction of occurence of sounds?

Some languages (Kikamba) can predict what sound follows another sound, mispronunce wouldn’t change meaning but would think had accent

Contrasive vs non contrasive

Replacing one sound with another in a word does or doesn’t change meaning

What is a phoneme?

Class of speech sounds which are variants of same sound

What is an allophone?

Phonetic segment produced by a speaker

What does distribution mean in speech sounds?

Set of phonetic environments in which a phoneme exists

What does contrasive distribution mean?

2 sounds occur in same phonetic environemnt and word changes if use different one

What is a minimal pair?

Pair of wrds whose pronunciations differ by 1 sound and have different meaning

What is altenation?

Different pronunciations of same word

• Ex. Sing, Sung, Sang

Difference between phonetic and phonemic?

Single sound relating to motor act of producing sounds

Sound patterns and organization of speech sounds in our brain

What are articulation disorders?

Issues with motor production of speech sounds, SODA (Substitutions, Omissions, Distortions, Additions)

What are phonological disorders?

Language based disorder

• Can produce sounds but struggle to organize

What are phonological representations?

Underlying sound structure of specific words in long term memory

• Develops over time

What is an interjection?

Word or expression occuring as an utterance on its expressing a spontaneous feeling or reaction

Ex. Ouch! Wow!

Ex. Bof

What is a concept?

Mental representtion of the meaning of a word

What are the 2 main memory types?

Implicity (behaviours show this) and explicity (can testify to)

What is procedural memory?

The know how for philosophy, motor and cognitive skills

• Ex. Clive Wearing antegrade and retrograde amnesia can still play music

What is semantic memory?

Knowledge (for philosophy)

• Ex. I remember this fact, this thing about me is true

What is episodic memort?

Is memory (for philosophy)

• Ex. I remember eating breakfast

Time travelling and partially re experiencing those events in life

What is episodicity?

Special quality allowing you to relive experiences once had

• Carries special feeling unlike semantic memories

What are the two cases of artists and the feeling of remembering?

• Ask artist to paint imaginary scene which parents when saw painting see as scene artist saw as a child (artist thinks its imaginary but actually remembers it episodically)

• Artist paints scene thinks remembers from childhood but content is actually made up

What is the false memory theory and who made it?

• Elizabeth Loftus

Think you remember something that never happened

What is the archival theory?

The process of encoding, storing, and retreiving memories

What is the constructivist theory?

Episodic memories are like imagination and making experinces that may or may not match reaility

What is the 3 truths an a lie study done by Jim Coan?

Subjects claimed to episodically remember having been lost at mall as child and even added details to story

What is semanticization?

Process where episoic memories shift to semantic memory due to exposure to an environment

Are their words that don’t represent concepts?

• Cooncepts without words and words with no concepts

What is the philosophical thought on concepts?

Words that represent concepts are abstractions, intangible things

• Can refer to many things, objects, properties of objects, facts

What are representations in the context of language and thought?

Representations are symbolds (words, sound, images) or symbolize something (physical objects, abstract concepts, states of affairs)

What is intentionality in relation to representation?

Is the content or meaning of a representation

• As representations are about something, this meaning gives them intentionality

What is the difference between natural and artificla representations?

• Natural representations are mental representations like thoughts and images in mind

• Artificial representations include symbols like words, pictures, or signs, representing the world

How does arbitrariness play a role in representations?

Words and symbols often have arbitrary meanings based on social conventions or agreements

What does resemblance mean in the context of representations?

Some representations resemble the thing they represent, no needed

• Ex. a picture of the eiffel tower resembles it by looking like it

What is the concept of derived intentionality and original intentionality?

• Derived intentionality; refers to meaning something has because of its connection to other representations

• Original intentionality refers to mental representations like thoughts and beliefs which may carry meaning inherently as tied to personal or evo context

What is mental representation?

Internal states or images in mind reflecitng one’s thoughts, beliefs, or mental models of the world

What is the dual nature purpose of intentional states(beliefs, desires, and intentions)?

• Internal states representing world in specific ways

• Causal relevance leading to behaviour or action

How can external states like money explain behaviour in machines?

External properties like money in a vending machine influence behaviour based on their intrinsic properties (size, weight) to cause machine to deliver product

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic properties of objects?

• Intrinsic; size, shape, colour

• Extrinsic; value, ownership, history

What are phonetics?

Study of the actual physical pronunciation of sound

What is phonology?

Abstract representations of sounds (mental organization)

What is syntax?

How sentences are formed

What is semantics?

How meaning derives from words and sentences