Studied by 24 people
Language
Consists of symbols that convey meaning, plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages.
Phonemes
smallest speech units in a language that c an be distinguished perceptually
ex. sounds letters make (about 40 in English language)
Morphemes
-smallest units of meaning in a language
ex. fire, guard, friend(1), unfriednly (3) (about 50,000 in English language)
Syntax
-system of rule that specify how words can be arranged into sentences
ex. sentence must have a noun phrase + verb phrase
Semantics
-area of language concerned w/understanding the meaning of words/word combinations
ex. denotation= dictionary definition connotation= emotional overtones + secondary implications
overextension
-occurs when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects/actions than it is meant to
ex. using ball for anything round (orange,apple,moon)
underextension
occurs when a child incorrectl uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects/actions than it is meant to
ex. "use doll only for a specific favorite doll
telegraphic speech
consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, othe less critical words are omitted
ex. "give doll" vs "please give me the doll"
overregularization
-grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they dont apply
ex. "the girl goed gome" or :i hitted the ball"
Behaviorist theory(Skinner)
Argued that children learn language the same way they learn everything else: throught imitation, reinforcement, other established principles of conditioning
Behaviorist theory(Skinner)
Children develop language skills based on positive reinforced for using language Child gets positively reinforced by speaking. Able to get needs met through language Child who is hungry gets positively reinforced when expressed to parents that he is hungry Also, parents praising kids for using language Might explain vocab differences in kids
Evolutionary theory
language evolved asa device to build and maintain social conditions in increasingly larger groups, some speculate that differences in language skill influence reproductive fitness
Nativist Theory of Language (Chomsky)
humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language
Nativist Theory of Language (Chomsky)
Chomsky believes that language is an innate skill that is specific to humans The language acquisition device is the hypothetical device in the mind that provides humans with ability to acquire and develop language Supported by the fact that children universally develop language at the same rate, regardless of environment Children have an innate sense of putting sentences together with proper syntax, putting words in proper order.
Language Acquistion Device
innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language
ex humans learn language same way birds learn to fly (biologically equipped for it)
Whorfian THeory of Liguistic Relativity
-hypothesis that ones language determines the nature of ones thought
whorf speculated that different languages lead people to view the world differently
Whorfian THeory of Liguistic Relativity
simply the idea tha language impacts the way we think about things, events, etc. in our environment Because the eskimos have so many different words for snow,it shapes the way people think about snow Some cultures might have more words for types of the color blue thus influencing the way they think about the colors Think about an activity you do, which causes you to have multiple words for certain things
Functional Fixedness
tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
ex. screwdriver is only for screws/ opening things, not a weight
Mental Set
Persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past -ex. diagnosing everyone w/ similar symptoms the same
Overconfidence bias
a tendency to hold a false and misleading assessment of our own abilities
hindsight bias
tendency upon learning outcome of an event to overestimate ones ability to have forseen the out come
trial and error
trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works
ex. eating berries, some kill some dont, they learn and try more
Algorithm
-a step by step process which guarantees a solution, slow but accurate -ex. writing out all possible combinations for an anagram
Heuristic
-a heuristic is a mental shortcut, a rule of thumb, a speedy but prone to error -ex. forming subgoals, working backwards, searching for analogies, etc.
Availability heuristic
-When we make judgements or decisions based on how much it stands out in our mind that is how much its available as a mental
ex. estimating divorce rate by recalling divorces withing your friends parents
Representative Heuristic
-A rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype. -ex. people believe HTTHTH is more likely than TTTTTT bc coi tossing is random, they are wrong
conjunction fallacy
-The assumption that more specific conditions are more probable than general ones -ex. college teacher + politician vs just politician
Gamblers Fallacy
-The belief that the odds of a chance event more likely to occur if this event has not occured recently
ex. keep losing at spinning wheel, think youll win next time
Confirmation BIas
-The tendency to only seek info that is likely to support one's preexisting views, decisions and beliefs. And often disregard contradictory info.
ex. diagnosing someone w/ something b/c looking for those specific symptons
Framing
-refers to how decision issues are posed/how choices are structured -ex. 200 people will be saved vs 400 will die (out of 600)
Belief Perserverance
the tendency for people to hold their beliefs as true, even when there is ample evidence to discredit the belief
incubation effect
-occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after period of conciously thinking about the problem -thats why taking a break from a difficult problem might help
insight
occurs when people suddenly discover correct solution after struggling for a while -Sudden understanding -No conscious understanding of how a solution came to us
divergent thinking-
-seeking multiple ways to solve problems and or ake decisions. People who dont have functional fixedness are divergent thinkers
Convergent thinking
-seeking a single way to solve problems and/or making decisions
Tolmans Study on Latent Learning
3 groups of rats (group A, B, C)
group A rewarded each time they completed maze
Group B not reinforced at all -Group C rewarded after 11th time -C ran at same time as A, showing they were learning the whole time -Tolman's experiments with rats demonstrated that organisms can learn even if they do not receive immediate reinforcement
latent learning is the learning that is not readily apparent util received reinforcement
Apply latent learning to humans
students dont participate in class, but when teacher offers reward, student end up participating and showing they knew the answer the whole time
Rescorola's Study on Signal relations/Contigency THeory
1 group of rats(A and B) -both shocked 20 times, A had tone 20 times and B had tone 40 times -Contingency theory is one approach to formalizing associative learning (Rescorla, 1967, 1968). According to Rescorla, the "American" view of Pavlovian conditioning focused upon the frequency of pairings between reinforcement (or more generally the unconditioned stimulus (US)) and the conditioned stimulus (CS).
conigency theory is that for learning to take place the stimulus provides subject in for concerning likelihood or chance that certain event will occur
Apply Rescorola's theory to humans
if supersticious, make connection wearing "Special" socks and winning game
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