American Studies (APUSH) Midyear Review

Pre-Encounter Native Life (1492)

Pre-Encounter Native Life (1492)

- about 40 mil Natives lived in Mesoamerica + Peru

- another 7 mil lived in U.S. + Canada

northern Natives lived in lineage-based, self-governing tribes, whereas southern Natives lived in complex, structured societies and empries (ex: Aztecs + Incas)

- Natives were aware of other native groups' existence and traded and fought w/ each other

What ideology did Europeans believe in at this time?

- that they had the divine duty to dominate nature

- that their ability to read and write, along with their faith in Christianity gave them superiority over the other races that didn't have these

Powhatans

- group of Indians that had first contact w/ Jamestown Colony

Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) Confederacy

- democratic union of 5 tribes that met in times of great need

- each tribe retained independence

- no emperior-like figure

- consolidation of the Iroquois League made it a really strong force as they subjugated some neighbors by force, and putting others under the status of a vassal state

- after the encounter, colonists understood and respected their power

settler colonialism

- colonist settler societies replacing indigenous populations, causing colonizers over time to develop soverignty (control) over disputed lands and a distinctive identity

Why did the Columbian exchange lead to population growth in Europe?

- b/c food was not widely available in Europe and the importation of foods from Western Hemisphere sustained a larger population and extended lifespans

Encomienda & Forced Labor System

Spanish agriculture, along with mines, also generated promising wealth. Spaniards used Natives and imported African slaves into a forced labor system known as the Encomienda system. New Spain became a hierarchical society marked by brutality as the system provided harsh lashing punishments.

Concentration of Slavery During 17th-18th Centuries

- mainly in the South than in the North

Transatlantic Slave Trade (Atlantic Slave Trade)

- linked Europe, Africa, and the Americas in a harsh triangular trade

- During 1500-1800, Portugal, Spain, and England shipped 13 million Africans west across the Atlantic into slavery and enslaved 2-4 million Natives in the Americas.

- The Middle Passage across the Atlantic was nightmarish as 20-30% of enslaved ppl died there and most of them arrived in the Americas in terrible health and condition.

- Violence in Africa facilitated the slave trade as the trade sparked wars within Africa as African leaders rushed to benefit from the trade themselves. Many West African kingdoms became militarized and centralized states producing many slaves for the Europeans within the trade.

- the slave trade also generated immense wealth that powered the colonization of the Americas. These imported slaves harvested profitable cash crops, such as sugar, rice, and tobacco. Slaves mined immense amounts of gold and silver (especially in South America). South American slavery was especially lethal b/c of the dangerous working conditions in the mining and sugar fields.

Jamestown, Virginia

first permanent English settlement in North America

John Smith

- while disliked by many, Smith took leadership of the colony

- put an end to laziness and gold fever

- forced people to do work in planting crops, searching area, and making connections with Native groups

The Headright System

- headright system created in 1618, attracting settlers to work in tobacco plantations

- working terms involved landowner receiving 50 additional acres of land for every worker he brought to his land even if the worker was free or a slave or even died en route. Primarily used in Virginia, Maryland, Georgia & North and South Carolina

Why did so many Europeans endure harsh working conditions and a dangerous ocean voyage to work as Indentured Servants?

- some were convicts w/ nothing to lose, most were poor who could not find work at home, prospect of "freedom dues" that included land that appealed to immigrants

- however, when European economies were back to being strong, the # of ppl willing to emigrate to America declined

Bacon's Rebellion (1675-76)

- led by Nathaniel Bacon who resented the colonial government, attracting a following of nearly a thousand dissatisfied men

- caused by anger from gov't monopolizing profits from fur trade with Natives and that the Gov't cared more about the Natives than it did for the small landowners

- in this rebellion, Bacon men attacked Natives across colony and confronted Governor Berkeley of Jamestown

Failure of Bacon's Rebellion

Bacon contracted dysentery and died. W/o Bacon's leadership, the rebellion died down. 23 rebel leaders were hanged, and Berkeley's loyal followers took the property of Bacon's people.

Effects of Bacon's Rebellion

- Caused government to step up in replacing Governor Berkeley, enabling more frequent elections, lowering taxes on the poor, and funding more attacks on the Natives.

- Helped make large landowners to be kinder to smaller ones, inviting them to parties, loaning their tools and slaves, etc.

- Made slavery more popular as wealthy preferred to control a captive labor force with no rights than deal with potentially rebellious poor whites.

- Strengthened white supremacy making all white ppl feel more superior to the Africans and Natives who lived amongst them.

Martin Luther

German priest and reformer that called for end of simony and indulgences, a focus on faith (not good works) as the source of salvation, and on the Bible, not church officials

- a Protestant Reformation that challenged Catholic Church's authority

John Calvin

As part of the Protestant Reformation, Calvin rejected the notion that good behavior could lead to salvation. He introduced the concept of predestination where God "elected" ppl to be saved before they were born, and people could not change their destiny.

Mayflower Compact

a document that demonstrated early commitment to self-government and a neighborly mindset amongst the Pilgrims. It stressed values like Justice, Responsibility, and Equality.

John Winthrop

Governor of Massachussets Bay Colony

- uses sermon to bring ppl together in serivce of common cause as they arrive in MA bay, allusions to establish his litearcy and bolster personal credibility and of his vision. He refers to posterity b/c he believes Puritans are part of a long historical narrative that begins, and then runs into the future.

Puritans' Importance on Economic Value

Puritans valued many capitalist ideas as they thought these ideas could help with their historical, providential mission, but valued family, patriarchy, and morality more than such mere profits. They believed that profits had to be linked to the benefit of the general welfare of the entire Puritan community, not just the individual.

Puritan Value of Hard Work

- helped Puritans colonize a harsh place like New England, turn New England into a City on a Hill, fullfill commands of God, make charitabel giving possible, and provide ppl with sense of personal worth and dignity

Puritan "Just Wars" & Slavery

Puritans routinely enslaved Native peoples when they took captives in "just wars." Puritans regarded all their wars against Natives as "just" b/c they believed the wars led Natives to become more Christian and "civilized"

Why did many Puritans believe that slavery and democratic government were compatible?

To Puritans, Africans and Native ppls were "others" living outside the "perimeter fence," causing their voices and experiences not commanding respect

Native Conflict in New England

growing colonial and shrinking Native populations pressured Natives to sell or surrender their lands, and as time passed, conflicts over animals trespassing and land damage increased as colonists did not fence their livestock causing their animals to trample on Native lands

Praying Towns

Villages where Puritans converted Indians to Christianity and somewhat assimilated into Puritan culture, living according to Puritan laws

How did Praying Towns advance colonization in New England?

These towns threatened Native self-rule and soverignty and turned some Natives into reliable allies of Puritans during times of war.

Why did some Natives support this deal with the Puritans?

their declining population made them need the protection that Praying Towns offered

Puritans, Natives, & Providence

Some puritans thought Indians were ancient Jews who had come to NA after Roman siege of Jerusalem and forgotten their origins. They also thought that some Native languages resembled Hebrew. By converting these Natives, Puritans believed they were creating a godly "Christian Commonwealth" that would bring about the 2nd Coming of Jesus

The Pequot War (1636-37)

powerful nation involved in fur trade with Dutch where English Colonists with the help of the Narrangansett, waged a war of annihilation against the Pequots and permanently reduced their power in New England

King Philip's War (1675-76)

Wampanoag leader Metacom (King Philip) led the resistance against the Europeans as he led coordinated attacks on colonial settlements throughout New England. At the start of the war, Natives had the upper hand. However, due to lack of overall unity and poor ammunition and technology, Philip's War, had thus failed.

Established Churches, 1715

established churches such as the Congregational Church (Puritans), the Dutch Reformed Church, and the Anglican Church (the Church of England) all received gov't fudning.

Relative Degrees of Colonial Religiosity

New England: Most Churched -> Middle Colonies: Moderately Churched -> Southern Colonies (like Chesapeake): Least Churched

declension

ppl/colonies becoming less and less devout to religion over time, and sin seemed to be taking over, especially amongst the young

Why did Puritans fear declension?

b/c of the half-way covenant which was issued in response to the declining religious zeal where Puritans that did not have a personal conversion experience that was deep and emotional could not attain full church membership. as a result, they could not vote, and many men and young ppl were these "lesser members" of the church

Why was it so difficult to produce ordained (approved) ministers in the South?

- fewer public schools, lower literacy rates, higher mortality rates made it difficult to produce, recruit, and retain these ministers

People reacted to declension throughout British North America giving rise to...

Religious revivals and the Great Awakenin was born during the 1st half of the 1700s

George Whitefield

- most influential influencers of the Great Awakening, as he visited colonies from England and Ireland, installing thrill into people from his emotional sermons

- had a major impact on colonial life as ppl had emotional responses towards his focus on faith and power of God causing Evangelical Protestantism (a branch of Christianity that focuses on personal faith in Jesus, biblical authority, and sharing the Christian gospel) to grow stronger, making its influence sweep across the Atlantic World, as ppl focused on converting their neighbors

"New Birth"

A sentiment of fear that Ministers wanted to create to instill a God-fearing public which involved around ignoring good works and recognizing your helpnessness w/o God, accepting despair and surrendering to God, and even accepting an exhilarting and liberating infusion of Grace from God

Why did some people fear the consequences of the Great Awakening?

b/c it inspired and empowered common people! It had the potential to encourage social leveling in a culture that valued a hierarchial social system like patriarchy and white supremacy.

Atlantic World

exchange of items, goods, commodities between the Old World and the New World

Enlightenment

a philosophical movement that started in Europe and spread across the colonies to cause people to use rational thinking and concepts of the Scientific Revolution and to apply them on human affairs

Ideas:

- Universe operates according to discoverable, Natural laws (like gravity + magnetism)

- Rational inquiry would reveal these laws

- Enlightenment thinkers valued reason over superstition, logic over emotion, and progress over tradition as they thought people could make the world into a better, more equitable place

- the political culture of the Enlightenment featured commitments to the sanctity of individual rights and the limitation to gov't power

Deism

Many enlightenment philosophers were Deists, that believed God was a distant watch maker who had set up universe to run according to Natural Laws, and they did not believe in miracles

How did Enlightenment ideas get to British North America from Europe?

through colonial almanacs as they reported new intellectual achievements, were cheaper than books, were humorous, and very popular among consumers

- colonial post officies sent books, almanacs, and newspapers back and forth across the Atlantic exposing ppl to new ideas, creating what ppl like Thomas Jefferson and James Madison called an "Empire of Reason"

John Locke (1634-1704)

- his ideas were that human freedom and individual rights mattered, all ppl must have "natural rights" that govts must respect, gov'ts must have the consent of the governed to be legitimate, the "Divine Right of Kings" idea was absurd, and Republican governments (w/ elections) were the best

- while he opposed slavery in theory, he believed that it was okay for Africans to be enslaved when captured in "just wars." His belief in the sanctity of property made him support chattel slavery

Puritan Morality

often enshrined in law and enforced

Republican Government

Limited gov't power

Guaranteed individual rights

w/ elections

Colonial Social Hierarchy

Patriarchy

White supremacy

Protestant supremacy

Conservative American Exceptionalism

- the idea that nation is a pure place for citizens to protect from outsiders

- Benjamin Franklin, initially supported this notion

Liberal American Exceptionalism

- opposite of the conservative version where the nation and its values are attractive to others, in acting like a "city on a hill" - --- After relations w/ England sour, Franklin transitioned to liberal American exceptionalism. He accepted the idea that indepednent colonies could serve as a global model and bring in a diverse population.

Mid-1700s Conflict between France and Britain (Beginning of 7 years war)

France and Britains begin to fight over the Ohio River Valley region. France built new forts within the area. Virginia also claimed the area where France built its forts and demanded France to withdraw from the region. The French refused.

Fort Necessity Conflict

VA sent young George Washington to build a fort to stop the advance of French forces. He built a simple fort that inevitably failed as he made many mistakes, and then surrendered to the French. British forces retreated and then began to prepare for a longer war. Both Fnrech and British forces utilized Native allies to support them.

Albany Plan of Union (1754)

Plan proposed by Benjamin Franklin to unite the colonies under one centralized government to defeat France and its Indian allies, but was unsuccessful b/c very few elections and colonies did not want to give up their individual powers. It alientated colonies by placing too much control within a centralized gov't, and alientated England by creating an inter-colonial gov't that threatened to weaken English power in the colonies as it seemed too much like the beginning of an independence movement

Why did the Franklin mix democratic and monarchical elements of government in the Albany Plan?

to create a mixed government that was the norm in British political culture and to please both ppl in the colonies and leaders in England

How did England win the French-Indian War (7 years war)?

- it won the war by mobilziing for war far more effectively than France by having a more developed captialist economy being able to provide more English troops, draft colonists into service, and seized needed supplies from the colonists. Overall, England spent 10x more money than France to secure victory in NA borrowing a great deal of money to win (~40% of expenditures)

What happened after England won the 7 years war?

- fell into a huge debt which caused it to impose direct taxation on the colonists to make up for the debt

Treaty of Paris, 1763

Treaty that ended the French Indian War, causing France to surrender all its claims in NA, where Britain got all French lands east of the Misssissipi River, including East + West Florida, and Spain received most of the Louisiana territory from France as a reward for fighting on its side

- Natives did not have a voice in the process at all

Why did Crevecoeur believe immigrants became "Americans?"

He believed it was b/c of the new opportunities found in NA, causing them to become hardworking, active citizens since those values generated rewards in NA, as they did NOT in Europe. Ppl in this era equated land to opportunity, and land owernship meant economic mobility. Immigrants still maintained elements of their traditional cultures.

Causes of French Indian War (1754-1763)

- desire for the Ohio River Valley region between England and France

"Middle Ground" of the Ohio River Valley

Britain promised the Natives that the Natives could control it, in order to attract more Native allies, but when the British made forts there, the Natives were displeased!

Pontiac's Rebellion/War (1763)

An organized Native resistance led by War Chief Pontiac who was attracted followers from many tribe. He and his followers expected British to limit their settlements and focus on trading ammunition and guns to them. A new and expensive war erupted after the French Indian War ended where Pontiac and his alllies did a lot of dmg to Brit holdings.

Proclamation Line of 1763

boundary set to turn the Ohio River Valley region into a "Royal Indian Reserve." It was designed to prevent England from wasting money on defense of the backcountry, slowing colonial settlement of the area.

Problems of the Royal Proclamation

white colonists saw the "backcountry" as too valuable to give up so they ignored the proclamation line and moved in the region in large numbers, angering local Natives there

The Paxton Boys Uprising, Dec. 1763

a group of 57 backcountry settlers that rose up in Western Pennsylvania who were angry with Pontiac's Rebellion and that their colonial gov't was not protecting them from Native attacks, so they slaughtered innocent members of a Native nation

The PA Government's First Response

governor John Penn was disgusted with this uprising's violence and ordered the arrest of the Paxton Boys, but colonists sympathized with the Paxtons so the gov't didn't prosecute them. Paxton followers still continued to march onto Philadelphia to protest their dissatisfaction

Ben Franklin's Response

met with the Protestors and promised to hear out their grievances, convincing them to break up

Why did Native peoples attempt to form alliances with each other during the mid 1700s?

They wanted to limit the movement of white settlers. (ex: Pontiac's Rebellion)

Virtuous people

honest, selfless, educated ppl who focused on common good and general welfare over their own success. they were NOT ambitious, as they focused on the wellbeing of others.

good gov't

a gov't that was not abusive and provided for the common good in ethical ways, while also recognizing the limits on its power

The Stamp Act of 1765

In 1765, Britain's Parliament passed Stamp Act in order to raise revenue and reduce the debt from the Seven Years War. It forced colonies to pay tax on playing cards and most printed material

Forms of Resistance to Stamp Act

- peaceful resistance: colonists believed that non-violent actions was a virtuous way to protest gov't actions to get the gov't to listen to them. Some examples include women boycotting British imported clothes by creating "homespun" as an alternative

- violent resistance: groups like Sons of Liberty engaged in the tarring and feathering of British officials who supported the Stamp Act

Results of Resistance towards Stamp Act of 1765

- In 1766, British Parliament finally repealed the very unpopular Stamp Act, but in return they issued the Declaratory Act, which reaffirmed its power to pass any laws over the colonists

salutary neglect

unwritten policy of leaving the British colonies exempt from most British laws, but broken after Stamp Act ensued

Enlightenment Culture

enlightenment philosophers developed ideas that shaped American culture: Absolute power is extremely bad (all of them), individuals have rights that gov't must protect (all of them), power should be decentralized to prevent opression (Montesquieu), and govts need the consent of the governed to be legit (Locke & Rousseau)

- enlightenment thinking even justified social hierarchies and slavery

Before the mid-1700s, were most colonists revolutionaries?

No, they simply wanted Britain to respect their ideas, wishes, and rights in the colonies. In short, they wanted a return to salutary neglect, but dissidents were serious about convincing Britain to hear their voices as they had with efforts like Stamp Act and boycott of british goods.

Boston Massacre

The first bloodshed of the Amercan Revolution, as British guards opened fire into a crowd killing 5 Americans

Effects of the Boston Massacre

- heightened tensions between British soldiers and the colonists of New England and contributed to the gradual formation of a distinct national identity that became increasingly less British

The Boston Tea Party, 1773

American colonists calling themselves the Sons of Liberty, disguised as Natives, boarded three British ships and dumped millions worth of British tea into the Boston harbor.

Intolerable Acts, 1774

Series of laws passed by the Parliament closing the Boston Port Act after the Boston Tea Party crime, damaging each of the colonies b/c Boston Port Act was instrumental to those parts of America

Spirit of 1776

point of unity allowing colonial leaders to organize a massive political and military effort against British rule and for republican government where there was limited gov't, rejection of political corruption, respect for individual rights, and respect for law

- allowed crucial documents like the Declaration of Independence to elevate important values like liberty and equality

imagined communities

communities that are socially constructed by those who see themselves as part of them

Patriots

- they thought they should have right to self-government b/c they didn't like how the King ruled. In protest and rebellion, some Patriots even tarred and feathered Loyalists or British authorities.

Loyalists

- they thought they should stay loyal and not disobey the king's orders. They wrongly accused the Patriots and had acts such as Stamp Act or the Boston Massacre. British Authorities and some Loyalists would even restrict the Patriots from basic rights

What did Americans do to the loyalists in the U.S.?

They expelled them from the U.S. and seized their wealth, causing 60,000 Loyalists to flee u.S. for Britain, Canada, and other places to keep their slaves.

Lord Dunmore

Last colonial governor of Virginia who issued a proclamation that offered freedom to any slaves of rebels, Patriots, and colonists who supported the Revolution if they fought for Britain

Book of Negroes

A book that held the names of 3K Black Loyalist slaves who were evacuated by the British to Canada and Britain to live as free people of color after the revolutionary war ended

Black Patriots

slaves that fought for the colonist side. In 1778, Rhode Island offered freedom to any slave who fought for the Patriot cause, and other colonies copied this action! Some colonial slaves received freedom for their service, others were cheated.

What happened after Americans delcared independence from the British?

They developed a new identity. THEY WERE NOT BRITISH ANYMORE!

Which parts of the colonies housed the most Loyalists?

Wherever British forces had the advantage, such as in coastal areas b/c that's where Britain established its power.

Common Sense

Written by Thomas Paine to convince American colonists to support revolution against the British Empire with his ideas that monarchy and hereditary succession are illogical practices that don't create order and stability, British gov't is unjust and unworthy, an independent America would represent progress for mankind, and the American Revolution promised to usher in a "republican millenium". In short, it was to convince Americans to support the revolution cause for independence!

Why did people find Paine's writing stylistically appealing?

b/c he wrote in an accessible and entertating way to persaude ppl to support revolution against Great Britain

pursuit of happiness

involved a person gaining knowledge to uplift society

Jefferson's Beliefs About Slavery

he believed that all slaves were entitled to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness and that they should be emancipated, but did not beleieve that emancipation would lead to racial equality in the U.S. He believed that freed slaves should have the freedom to create their own societies and governments in a place that was not the U.S.

Who were powerful colonial leaders before the revolution?

The Gentry (Washington, Jefferson) & Successful Merchants (Franklin, Hancock)

Who were powerful U.S. leaders after the revolution?

The Gentry (Washington, Jefferson) & Successful Merchants (Franklin, Hancock)

Some Important Continuities (before & after Revolution)

American Exceptionalism

Slavery & White Supremacy

Hunger for Native Lands

Patriarchy

Social mobility (for some)

Pervasive Protestant Christianity

Suspicion of concentrated power

Republican Motherhood

Revolution war gave women new responsibilities that they endured in the Early Republic. Women took an active interest in current events, politicals, and more to advise their husbands about national events AND primarily to teach their children the values assoicated with a republican, self-government.

2nd Continental Congress

Congress of American leaders which first met in 1775, declared independence in 1776, helped lead the United States during the Revolution, and approved of a Continental army.

Articles of Confederation (ratified in 1781)

Ratified in 1781, the AOC was the first gov't of the independent U.S. The Articles were created to provide a united national presence for the conduct of international affairs, collective defense during wars, and peaceful coexistence among the states

- gave state governments a lot of power over the federal gov't

federalism

gov't principle in which power is divided between the federal (national) gov't and the state govts