What is reconstructive memory?
We create memory like we would a jigsaw puzzle - piecing information together and therefore each time we recall a memory we may create a new version of it.
Reconstructions are made by combining real elements of the memory with existing knowledge - what we already know or have experienced in the past e.g. from films we have seen or from what others have told us or stereotypes.
Meaning this is inaccurate because when we fill in the gaps it isn’t the information of what actually happened but what we THINK should have happened.
What is a schema?
A cognitive template of memories built from experience = nurture.
Bartlett suggested that sometimes, when we have a gap in our memory or are unsure, we will fit it with what we ‘think’ should be there.
Everyone has different schemas because of different experiences.
Because we have individual and different schemas it is called an ideographic concept.
What are the 4 different types of schemas?
Confabulation
Shortening
Rationalisation
Leading questions
What is confabulation and how does it affect memory recall?
A memory error where gaps in a persons memory are unconsciously filled with distorted information
Mixing two similar memories together
If asked to recall an event similar to another event (e.g. birthday parties) you may merge it with the other - making it hard to specifically identify one event due to mixing the memories together.
What is shortening and how does it affect memory recall?
Missing parts of the memory
This can affect memory recall because you will only be able to recall a partial memory not the complete memory.
What is rationalisation and how does it affect memory recall?
Changing memory so that it makes sense to us.
this affects memory recall because we are changing the memory so it makes sense to us - meaning the memory will be inaccurate.
What are leading questions and how do they affect memory recall?
The way a question is worded can change how information is recalled.
This can affect memory recall because if a particular outcome is implied it can distort memory.
What was the aim of Bartletts ‘war of the ghosts study?’ (1932)
He aimed to investigate the accuracy of reconstructive memory.
What were the Pp asked to do?
English Pp asked to read a Native American folk tale called the ‘war of the ghosts.’ - because it was unlikely that Pp were familiar with the story.
He asked them to recall the story a few weeks later.
What did he find when Pp were asked to recall the story?
The Pp’s recalls distorted the content and style of the original story
The story was shortened
Confabulation as Pp unintentionally filled in gaps in their memory with inaccurate info.
Rationalisation as words, phrases changed to be closer to the English language/concepts, e.g. ‘boats’ instead of ‘canoes’
What did he conclude?
Showed that memory is not just a factual recording of what has occurred, but individuals make the effort to remember in terms of what they know and understand about the world.
Consequently, we often change our memories, so they become more coherent to us. (rationalisation)
The story was recalled differently - each person reciting it in their own way. With repetitive telling, passages became short, ideas that did not make sense were rationalised or removed.
This is a key finding that suggests we all reconstruct our memory to conform to our personal beliefs about the world, - our memories are anything but reliable.
What are implications of this research in the real world?
Shows eyewitness testimonies can be unreliable
e.g. eyewitness’s account of an event involving a weapon (where the weapon is the focus of the event), the concentration on the weapon often makes them exclude other important details of the crime, such as the perpetrator.
What are the key points about reconstructive memories’ CREDIBILITY?
Weakness
A01:
WOG study (1932)
English Pp asked to read a Native American story and recall it a few weeks later.
Pp recalled distorted content and style of the original story.
Confabulation as Pp unintentionally filled in gaps in their memory with inaccurate info.
Shortening of the story and rationalisation to make it make sense to them (boats instead of canoes) - closer to the English language concepts.
A03:
Not credible due to problems with research.
Research to test schemas through WOTG is limited and lacks control - Pp asked to recall information after different time periods.
Bartlett had no way of controlling any extraneous variables over the time periods that could have influences results e.g. head injuries, started drug use etc.
lowers internal validity.
What are they key points about reconstructive memories’ OBJECTIONS?
A01:
Schemas are not considered scientific
an abstract concept
Not a real part of your brain
A03:
Therefore they cannot be tested objectively through brain scans.
So it is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired in the first place or the exact way they influence cognitive processes.
Decreases scientific status of the theory.
What are they key points about reconstructive memories’ DIFFERENCES
A01:
Reconstructive memory theory is descriptive rather than explanatory
Doesn’t explain the why - no deeper explanation about why the memory is inaccurate.
Superficial
The MSM is a linear model stating clear processes about how memory can be lost due to inattention - transferred because of attention and retrieved.
A03:
The WMM is more structured and testable as the components are explained leading to key findings to help in the real world.
Baddeley’s study to investigate encoding methods - STM acoustically, LTM semantically.
Making info semantic so it can encode into LTM - attention will be paid to it.
Research evidence can be developed because of the WMM being more explanatory.
What are they key points about reconstructive memories’ APPLICATION?
A01:
Schema theory provides an insight into how inaccurate memories can be which has informed real world practices
eyewitness testimonies used to be highly regarded in criminal cases, often leading to convictions that were later determined as wrongful.
A03:
Understanding how memories can be influences has brought about change in the criminal justice system in highlighting that eye-witness memory isn’t always reliable
Now more weight is given to physical evidence such as DNA in convicting criminals.
Clearly reconstructive/schema theory fosters psychological knowledge in society and can be applied to real world scenarios.