AP Psych - Unit 7: Personality & MESH

Personality

a person's unique set of

consistent behavioral traits

Personality Traits

durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

Factor Analysis

Using statistical techniques to identify clusters of related info.

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”)

(by Costa & McCrae)

-Most modern model

-Cross-culturally supported

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”): Openness (H+L)

H: new ideas, broad in interests, takes challenges, abstract and creative thoughts

L: conventional, practical, narrow in interests, dislikes changes, don’t enjoy new things, resistant to change

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”): Conscientiousness (H+L)

H: responsible, organized, detail-oriented, disciplined, achievement-oriented

L: disorganized, impulsive, lazy, tend to procrastinate, dislike schedules, overlooks details.

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”): Extraversion (H+L)

H: outgoing, fun-loving, assertive, talkative, enjoy socializing and meeting new people

L: shy, serious, passive, quiet, prefers to be alone

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”): Agreeableness (H+L)

H: trusting, helpful, cooperative, warm, easy-going, dependable, empathetic, care about others, and help those in need

L: suspicious, uncooperative, cold, argumentative, self-centered

The Five-Factor Model (“Big 5”): Neuroticism (H+L)

H: inscure, anxious, moody, emotionally unstable, angry, worried

L: calm, even-tempered, emotionally stable

Allport’s Trait Theory: Central Traits

approx. 7 main personality traits that are apparent to others & consistent across diverse situations.

Allport’s Trait Theory: Secondary Traits

unlimited number of traits that only show up in specific situations.

Cattell’s Trait Theory (16-Factor): Source Traits

16 underlying personality traits that influence surface behavior

Cattell’s Trait Theory (16-Factor): Surface Traits

The combination of source traits that make up our personality. These are behaviors that others see  and are unlimited.

Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory: Introversion/Extroversion

Introverted: Quiet, Reflective, Reserved, etc...

Extraverted: Active, Sociable, Outgoing, etc...

Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory: Neuroticism - emotionally

High in Neuroticism: Moody, Anxious, Restless, Excitable, etc... 

Low in Neuroticism: Calm, Even-tempered, etc...

Eysenck’s Biological Trait Theory: Psychotism

High in Psychoticism: Cruel, hostile, aggressive, impulsive, self-centered

Low in Psychoticism: Warm, caring, concerned for others

Evaluating Trait Theories*

Advantage: 

 *Gives us terminology to describe behavior

Disadvantages:

*Overestimates the consistency of behavior from 

one situation to another.

*Doesn't explain behavior

Doesn't create a unique description for everyone (like a horoscope) (Barnum Effect)

Psychodynamic Perspective Focus

Focus is on the unconscious and early childhood

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory/Psychoanalysis: Id, Superego, Ego

Id (devil):

*Primitive, instinctual component of our personality

*Fulfills our unconscious urges

*Operates on the pleasure principle (instant gratification)

Includes: Eros (Life instinct), Thanatos* (Death instinct) & libido* (sexual energy)

Ego:

*Operates on the reality principle (delay gratification until id's urges can be satisfied in a socially acceptable way)

Superego (angel):

*moral component of personality (values, conscience, right vs. wrong)

*learned from parents & society

Defense Mechanisms

unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt resulting from unconscious conflict.

Denial (Defense Mechanisms)

refusal to recognize or acknowledge a threatening situation

ex. ben is failing his classes and denies that he is struggling academically

Repression (Defense Mechanisms) - RARE (TRAUMA)

“pushing” threatening or conflicting events/situations out of a conscious memory

ex. ella, badly injured from fire as a child, cannot remember the fire at all.

Rationalization (Defense Mechanisms)

making up acceptable excuses for unacceptable behavior.

ex. “if i dont eat breakfast, i can have that piece of cake later without hurting the diet”

Projection (Defense Mechanisms)

placing one’s own unacceptable thoughts onto others, as if it belonged to them and not themselves

ex. keisha likes her BFF bf, but denies and believes that the BFF’s bf likes her

Reaction formation (Defense Mechanisms)

forming an emotional reaction or attitude opposite to one’s threatening/unacceptable actual thoughts

ex. 7-year-old Darnell likes his female peer, Anne, but he makes fun of her and acts rudely in her presence.

Displacement (Defense Mechanisms)

expressing feelings that would be threatening if directed at the real target onto a less threatening substitute target

ex. Sandra is reprimanded by her teacher and gets home to pick a fight with her brother.

Regression (Defense Mechanisms)

falling back to childlike behaviors as a way to cope with stressful situations

ex. 5-year-old Jeff wet his bed after his parents bring a new baby.

Identification (Defense Mechanisms)

trying to become like someone else to deal with ones anxiety

ex. Marie admires Suzy, the most popular girl in school, and tries to copy her.

Compensation {subsitution} (Defense Mechanisms)

**IN ANOTHER AREA!

trying to make up for areas in which a lack is perceived, becoming superior in some other area.

ex. Reggie is not good in athletics so he puts all his energy in academics

Sublimation (Defense Mechanisms)

turning socially unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors

ex. Alain who is aggressive, becomes a hockey player

Intellectualization (Defense Mechanisms)

removing emotions from a situation; very logical thinking

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality. Each stage corresponds with a specific area/source of pleasure. 

Fixation (Psychosexual Stages of Development)

IF a stage is not resolved successfully, a fixation may result. A fixation is a preoccupation with a particular source of pleasure

Oral Stage (0-1 yr)

Mouth is the source of pleasure; focus is on breastfeeding/weaning to determine if successful resolution. 

Fixation: biting, chewing, sarcasm, smoking, etc...

 Anal stage (1-3 yrs) /w anal retentive & anal expulsive

The focus is on potty training to determine if successful resolution. 

anal retentive: organized, clean, like control (TOO EARLY OR TOO HARSH)

anal expulsive: messy, disorganized, impulsive (TOO LATE OR TOO LAX)

Phallic Stage (3-5 yrs)

Source of pleasure: genitals

Oedipus complex (boys) & Electra complex (girls)

Oedipus: little boys desire mommy and want to kill daddy

Electra: little girls desire daddy and want to kill mommy

(as a result, children use reaction formation & identification and cling to the same-sex parent. This is where the morals of the superego are learned)

*Girls develop penis envy.

Fixation: mommy/daddy issues; trouble finding a mate

Latency stage (5 yrs-adolescence)

Sexual impulses are dormant; nothing really happens. Most interaction occurs with same-sex children.

Genital stage (adolescence +)

Sexual desires reappear; earlier fixations reappear; sexual energies are channeled toward peers of the other sex, rather than toward oneself.

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Personal Unconscious

Houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness 

because it has been repressed or forgotten. (our traditional view of unconscious)

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Collective Unconscious

A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people's ancestral past; shared by entire human race. **SHARED UNCONSCIOUS

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Archetypes

ancestral memories; emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning. (Used in dream           analysis) *SYMBOLS OF COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

Carl Jung’s Analytical Psychology: Persona

= mask to hide true self (being “fake”)

How we present ourselves to the world. The persona represents all of the different social masks that we wear among various groups and situations. It acts to shield the ego from negative images.

Alfred Adler’s Individual Psychology: Striving for superiority - INFERIORITY

a feeling, often unconscious, that one is “lesser” to others in some way (physical, social, economical, intellectual, etc.)

As a result we use compensation (efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities), which drives us to excel (strive for superiority) in other areas in our lives. 

Important note:

A “complex” indicates a serious issue within one’s personality.  For example, a neurotic concern with feeling inferior to others is called an inferiority complex.  An insatiable need to prove oneself, often to demonstrate superiority over others, is called a superiority complex.

Karen Horney

*womb envy (men compensate in other ways)

While Freud argued personality differences in gender were biological, Horney argued that they were societal/cultural. She also focused on how different personalities were a representation of different ways of attaining love/affection.

Object Relations

Early relationships between infants and significant objects (especially people) shape personality

Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives

advantages:

• unconscious forces do influence behavior

• internal conflict does exist

• early childhood experiences do influence adult behavior

• people use defense mechanisms

disadvantages:

• lacks empirical evidence (all)

• unrepresentative samples (Freud)

• inaccurate reporting of data & method of conducting research had leading questions (Freud)

• ignores consciousness (all)

Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives

Emphasizes cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. These cognitive processes contribute to learned behaviors that are central to one's personality.

B.F. Skinner & Behaviorism

Personality (response tendencies) is developed through rewards and punishments.

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: Reciprocal Determinism

Thoughts/cognition, behaviors, and environmental factors all interact & influence each other.

Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: Self-efficacy

one's beliefs about their ability to succeed (produce expected outcomes) in a new/different situation. Can be high or low. Can be general or situation specific.

Walter Mischel & The Person-Situation Controversy

Mischel's theories focused on the importance of the situation in determining behavior. Identified certain "person variables" & "situational variables" in guiding behavior

 Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory & Locus of Control

Behavior is determined by the extent to which you believe your actions impact your environment. 

People are described as having either an internal LOC (yes, my behavior impacts my environment) or an external LOC (no, my behavior does not impact my environment)

Evaluating Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives

advantages:

• *empirical evidence

• *objective

• *emphasizes the role of the environment & cognitive processes

disadvantages:

• *de-emphasizes free will in behavior (too much emphasis on environment)

• *ignores unconscious & biological influences

Humanistic Perspectives (AKA Phenomenological)

emphasizes the unique qualities in humans, especially their freedom to choose their destiny & potential for personal growth; be the best that they can be.

Self-concept

“self schema”

collection of beliefs about one's own nature, human qualities, and typical behavior

(people are subjective in their self-concept)

Self-discrepancy theory (incongruence)

Actual self: who we are

Ideal self: who we wish we were

Ought self: who “they” say we should be

Negative emotions result from incongruencies and create a low self-concept

. Development of the Self

Conditions of worth* & feeling unconditional love

The development of the self is determined by the extent to which parents make their love conditional.  (positive self-concept is based on unconditional love)

Conditions of worth are created when the person is evaluated rather than the behavior.

Maslow’s hierarchy: Self-actualization

The need to fulfill one's potential; be the best you can be

Maslow’s hierarchy

bottom to top

1. Psychological Need: Air, water, food, shelter, sleep and sex

2. Safety & Security

3. Love and belongingness

4. self-esteem

5. self-transcendence

Growth Orientation

Focusing on what you have

Those with a growth orientation are healthier & more likely to reach self-actualization.

Deficiency Orientation

Focusing on what's missing

Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives

advantages:

• group therapies

• *child-rearing & relationships in general

• *free will to change

disadvantages:

• *poor testability & inadequate evidence

• *unrealistic view of human nature (too positive)

• *confined to Western cultures (very individualistic)

• *ignores biological, social, learning, and unconscious factors

Independent self-system: Individualism

putting personal goals ahead of group goals & defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group membership.

Dependent self-system: Collectivism

putting group goals ahead of personal goals & defining one's identity in terms of the groups one belongs to. 

Objective Tests (Self-report Inventories)

T/F, Y/N, MC questions/statements that can be scored

MMPI

most widely used; used in diagnosis (566 t/f questions; 10 clinical scales and 4 validity scales)

16PF (Cattell) & NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae) (Big 5)

NEO-PI: Compares results from private and public versions

MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

Another objective test (gives 4 letters = personality type)

Strengths & Weaknesses of Personality Tests

advantages:

• objective

disadvantages:

• *self-report data

• *social-desirability bias

• *response sets

Projective Tests

participants respond to vague, ambiguous

stimuli in ways that may reveal the subject’s unconscious needs, feelings, & personality traits & can be analyzed in many different ways

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

tell the story of a picture

Rorschach Inkblot Test

shown a series of inkblots; respond to what you see

Strengths and Weaknesses: Rorschach Inkblot Test

Strengths: not apparent to participants , insight into unconscious

Weaknesses: little evidence, how do you know if interpretation is accurate? (very subjective), etc...

Motivation

the factors that influence the initiation, direction, intensity, & persistence of behavior

Biological Factors of Motivation

ex: food, water, sleep, sex, temperature, physiological factors (drugs or hormones)          "internal"

Social Factors of Motivation

For what?: approval of others, acceptance, fitting in/standing out

By whom: parents/siblings, friends, teammates, teachers, media, 

culture/race/religion, etc."external"

Cognitive Factors of Motivation

ex: beliefs, thoughts, expectations & views of yourself & of the world, curiosity, intellectual growth, etc.      "internal"

Emotional Factors of Motivation

ex: love, happiness, anger, fear, jealousy  "internal"

Primary vs. Secondary Drives/Motives of motivation

Primary: biological need; directly related to survival (ex: food, water, oxygen, sleep, etc.)

Secondary: acquired drives that are culturally determined/learned (ex: obtaining $, intimacy, social approval, etc.) 

Drive Theory (AKA Drive Reduction Theory)

We are motivated to maintain homeostasis (balance)

(this theory best explains biological needs)

Homeostasis

state of physiological equilibrium or stability

Drive

internal state of tension that motivates an organism to behave in a certain way in order to restore homeostasis

Incentive Theory

Incentive = an external goal

We are motivated to obtain desirable stimuli or avoid negative stimuli      

ex: $, promotion, food, approval, a good grade, etc

Evolutionary/Instinct Theory

Based on survival, natural selection; reproductive capacity; automatic, involuntary, and unlearned behaviors

ex: birds fly south for the winter

Arousal Theory

People are motivated to maintain their optimal level of arousal (which is different for everyone)

-If over-aroused (above your optimal level) = motivated to reduce your level of arousal.

-If under-aroused (lower than your optimal level) = motivated to increase your arousal level.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

people are motivated to fulfill certain needs that are arranged in a hierarchy; the lower needs on the hierarchy must be fulfilled before someone can be motivated by the next need on the hierarchy.

Lateral Hypothalamus

Feeding center; "ON" switch

Ventromedial Hypothalamus/Nucleus

Satiety (satiety=feeling full) center; "OFF" switch

Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)

controls the selection of specific foods & blood sugar levels (ever wonder why you choose the foods you do?!)

Glucose

Food is converted into glucose (simple sugar) and provides a source of energy.  low levels = hungry

Insulin

secreted by pancreas; reduces appetite

Ghrelin

released by empty stomach = stimulates appetite; causes stomach contractions

CCK

delivers satiety (full) signals to the brain

Leptin

long-term regulation of hunger, 

high leptin = high fat storage; less hunger

Environmental Factors: Palatability

tastes good = eat more

Environmental Factors: Quantity Available

more food = eat more

Enviromental Factors: Variety Available

increased variety = eat more

Enviormental Factors: Presence of Others

more people = eat more

Environmental Factors (list all)

1. Palatability

2. Quantity Available

3. Variety Available

4. Presence of Others

5. Cultural Factors

6. Learned Preferences