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Research Ethics
The set of moral principles and guidelines that researchers must follow when conducting studies.
Key Goals of Research Ethics
1. Ensuring the protection of human and animal subjects,
2. upholding scientific integrity,
3. respecting societal values throughout the research process.
What are the four key documents discussed in this lecture that guide research ethics and when were the written?
Ethics of Research Involving People (1865), Nuremberg Code (1947), Helsinki Declaration (1964), The Belmont Report (1979)
10 Guiding Principles of the Nuremberg Code
1. Volunteers must freely consent to participate in research. 2. Researchers must fully inform volunteers concerning the study. 3. Risks associated with the study must be reduced where possible. 4. Researchers are responsible for protecting participants against harms. 5. Participants can withdraw from the study at any time. 6. Research must be carried out by qualified researchers. 7. If adverse effects emerge, research must be stopped. 8. Society should benefit from study findings. 9. Research on humans should be based on previous animal or other work. 10. No research study should begin if there is a reason to believe that death or injury may result.
How was the Nuremberg Code formed?
By American judges in response to WWII war experiments.
11 Guiding Principles of the Helsinki Declaration
1. Physician's duty to protect the life, health, privacy, and dignity of the human subject. 2. Research involving humans must conform to scientific principles and methods. 3. Research protocols should be reviewed by an independent committee. 4. Research protocols should be carried out by scientifically and medically qualified individuals. 5. The risks and burden of human subjects should not outweigh the benefits. 6. Research should be stopped if risks are found to outweigh the benefits. 7. Research is justified only if there is a reasonable likelihood that the population under study will benefit from the results. 8. Participants must be volunteers and informed about the research study. 9. Every precaution must be taken to respect privacy, confidentiality, and participants integrity. 10. Consent must be obtained from minors if they are able to do so. 11. Investigators are obliged to preserve the accuracy of the results; negative and positive results should be publicly available.
3 Basic Ethical Principles of the Belmont Report
Respect for persons - subjects enter into research voluntarily with enoughinformation to make a decision about whether to participate.
Beneficence - design experiments that do not harm study participants. Every effortshould be made to maximize potential benefit and minimize possible harms.Experiments which will injure one person are not allowed, regardless of the benefit to others.
Justice - All individuals should be treated as autonomous agents. Selection of subjects should be scrutinized to determine whether some participants are being selected because of availability, compromised position or manipulability
Important details of the experiment performed by Edward Jenner in 1776
- Injected cowpox pus into small boy then later injected smallpox pus.
- James did not get smallpox! Yay!
Important details of the Tuskegee Syphalis Study
- 1932 starts in Alabama with Black men with and without syphilis, testing the effectiveness of heavy metal treatment (Metallica, Black Sabbath, etc)
- Continued the study even after results were gathered
- Continued study even when penicillin treatment became available
- Stopped in 1972. Later NAACP won money, Pte Clinton apologizes to participants
Important details of the Willowbrook School Study
- 1960's school for mentally defective persons
- Feed poop to the kids to give them hepatitis A
- It's ok becuase "they would've gotten it anyways "
Important details of the San Antonio Contraceptive Study
- 1970's Double-blinded randomized trial wth placebo
- 76 impoverished Mexican American women
- All instructed to use contraceptive cream
- 10 women with placebo became pregnant 😐
What is IRB?
Institutional Review Board. Ensure that research is conducted in an ethical manner.
What were the potential ethical issues of the 1988 - Blinded seroprevalence studies?
The CDC didn't tell patients who tested positive for HIV.
What were the ethical issues raised by the Editor of the New England Journal of Medicine with regard to the HIV transmission study in Uganda?
They didn't inform the partners of patients that they were positive. They didn't provide cure for the patients.
What were the ethical issues raised by the Editor of the New England Journal of Medicine with regard to the HIV Mother-to-child transmission prevention trials?
That the researchers should've compared it to US trails instead of using a placebo group.
According to the UN, what is the definition of Sustainable Production and Consumption?
The use of services and related products, which respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life while minimizing the use of natural resources and toxic materials as well as the emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle of the service or product so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations.
Target 12.3
By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses.
Target 12.4
By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air, water and soil in order to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
Target 12.5
By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse.
What is Food Loss
Food Loss is a decrease in quality / quantity of food that occur in the food supply chain. Agricultural production, storage and transportation, processing and packaging.
What is the definition of Food Waste and what are the two main areas where food waste occurs?
Food Waste is a decrease in quality / quantity of food that occur by retailers, food service providers, and customers. Wholesale and retail and consumption.
What are the key (i) social impacts, (ii) economic costs, and (iii) environmental impacts of food loss and food waste?
Social: Food insecurity, hunger, malnutrition and loss of
Economic: $218 billion/year. $1 per year in the world
Environmental between 21 and 37 percent of greenhouse gas emissions
Rank, in order of most to least, the food waste from household waste, waste from food services, waste from retail sale of food, and waste from manufacturing.
Household, manufacturing, food service, retail.
True or false: Food waste is higher in high income groups compared to low-income groups.
False: it's about the same regardless of income
Describe the differences in food loss and waste by stage between North America and Oceana compared to sub-Saharan Africa.
North America it happens at the consumer/household level whereas in Sub-Saharan Africa it happens at the production level.
By weight, what are the top five recycled materials, in order of most to least?
Paper and paperboard, metals, rubber leather and textiles, wood, then plastics
According to their sustainability report, when does Amazon aspire to reach net-zero carbon emissions.
2040
What SDG target suggests that GT 2803 should have a rigorous final exam?
12.8.1.
Target 13.1
Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries.
Target 13.2
Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning.
Target 13.3
Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning.
About how much has the annual global average temperature changed from 1920 to 2020?
Increased by about 1 degree Celsius.
Describe the change in average annual number of deaths from disasters over the past 100 years.
A large decline.
Compare the change in the number of earthquakes with the change in the number of floods reported between 1970 and 2023.
Floods have increased, earthquakes have not changed.
What is the Greenhouse Effect
The heating of the earth because of the gases in the atmosphere.
What are the four major Greenhouse Gases
CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, fluorinated gases.
What are the four Biggest Sources of Greenhouse Gases
Electricity and heat, agriculture and land, industry, transportation.
Paris Climate Agreement
A legally binding agreement with a set of long-term goals to guide all nations to limit global temperature increase to 2 degrees, reviewing countries' agreements every 5 years.
Rank China, India, Saudi Arabia, South America, and the USA in terms of per capita greenhouse gas emissions.
Saudi Arabia, USA, China, South America, India.
According to the UN, what is the definition of Sustainable Production and Consumption?
Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development.
Target 14.1
By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities.
Target 14.3
Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced scientific cooperation at all levels.
Target 14.4
By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices.
What is eutrophication and what are some ways to measure it?
When chemicals (mostly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff from land into the water which increase algae and bacteria that consume oxygen which kills the lil fishies. It can be measured through chlorophyll-a.
About how much plastic entered the ocean in 2021?
Over 17 million metric tones
What is ocean acidification and how is it measured? Describe how acidification has changed in the seawater near Hawaii from 1988 to 2021.
Change in the ocean's pH; dramatic decrease in Hawaii from about 8.1 to 8.06.
About how much has the temperature of the ocean increased from 1920 to 2020?
About 1.5-1.75 degrees C.
What is meant by overexploited fish stocks?
When they are caught at a rate higher than the population can support, jeopardizing their ability to produce Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY).
Target 15.2
By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally.
Target 15.3
By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world.
Target 15.5
Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and protect threatened species.
Deforestation
Remove or thin forests for lumber or to use the land where the trees stood for crops, grazing, extraction, or development.
Desertification
Land degradation in drylands where biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or human activities.
Biodiversity
The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.
What are the key drivers that lead to increased desertification?
Human activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, farming practices, urbanization, climate change, and natural disasters.
IUCN Red List
Established in 1964, it's a list of threatened species and an indicator of the world's biodiversity.
About how many species are threatened with extinction? What percentage of all species are threatened with extinction?
More than 46,300 species, which is about 28% of all assessed species.
What are some examples of biodiversity-related economic instruments?
Taxes, fees, environmentally-motivated subsidies, tradable permit schemes, payments for ecosystem services, and biodiversity offsets.
Target 16.1
Significantly reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere.
Target 16.2
End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence against and torture of children
Target 16.5
Substantially reduce corruption and bribery in all their forms
How many homicides occurred in the US and in India in 2022? Which country had the higher homicide rate?
US had 21,594 and India had 40,130; the rate of the US was higher at 6.4 per 100,000 people.
Homicide Rate Comparison (Men vs. Women)
About twice as high in men than women
According to the WHO, how many children were estimated to experience sexual violence in 2022?
1 billion.
How many children were known by authorities to have been abused in 2022 in the US?
Over 558,899.
Largest Forms of Child Abuse in the US
Neglect, physically abused, sexually abused.
Definition of Human Trafficking
The unlawful act of transporting or coercing people in order to benefit from their work or service.
How many people were officially detected by national authorities as being trafficked in 2022 in the US and in the UK?
4,314 in the UK and 657 in the US.
What percentage of the prison population in the US are in prison, without being convicted or sentenced for a crime?
26.15%.
What is the Corruption Perception Index and how is it determined?
The opinions of experts determining how much corruption there is.
What is the Global Corruption Barometer and how is it determined?
The opinions of normal people about how much corruption there is.
Does studying improve grades?
ABSOLUTELY! keep studying if you want an A :)
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