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How do psychologists define 'motivation'?
the process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-oriented behaviors.
What are the four perspectives on motivated behavior?
Instinct Theory, Drive-Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
What is Instinct Theory?
Behaviors are motivated by innate biological instincts, which are hardwired into the body
What is the Drive-Reduction Theory?
Motivated behavior arises from the need to reduce drives (e.g., hunger or thirst) to restore homeostasis.
What is the Arousal Theory?
We are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, not necessarily to reduce tension but to achieve excitement or stimulation.
what is Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs?
Motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning with basic physiological needs and progressing toward self-actualization.
What is an instinct?
an innate, unlearned pattern of behavior that is universal within a species, triggered by specific stimuli.
What is homeostasis?
the body's tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.
What are incentives?
external stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior.
What are some factors that influence our eating habits besides hunger?
Social influences, emotional factors, and environmental cues.
How does curiosity relate to Arousal Theory?
it suggests that people are motivated to explore and seek out novelty to achieve an optimal level of arousal.
What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law state?
It states that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance; too little leads to boredom and too much leads to anxiety.
Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, starting from the bottom.
Physiological, Safety, Belongingness and Love, Esteem, Self-Actualization.
What is self-transcendence?
the desire to go beyond personal self-interest and seek a higher meaning or help others.
What is affiliation?
The need to form social bonds and relationships with others.
What is social identity?
the part of an individual’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups.
How does social exclusion(ostracism) affect the brain?
it activates areas associated with physical pain processing, indicating social pain is similar to physical pain.
What are the positive and negative effects of social media on affiliation?
Helps: Connection and communication; Harms: Superficial interactions and feelings of isolation.
How is social media use linked to teen mental health?
Increased use is associated with higher rates of anxiety, depression, and loneliness.
What is narcissism?
excessive self-love and a need for admiration, often amplified by social media.
What is achievement motivation?
the drive to pursue and attain goals related to personal success.
What is grit?
the combination of passion and perseverance toward long-term goals.
What is the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?
driven by external rewards, while the other is driven by internal satisfaction.
What does research say about intrinsic motivation's trend in recent generations?
Intrinsic motivation has been decreasing, with more individuals becoming extrinsically motivated.
Which is more critical for success, intelligence or self-discipline?
Self-discipline is more important for success than intelligence.
What are the three components defining emotion?
Physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.
What is the James-Lange Theory of emotion?
Emotions result from our awareness of physiological responses to stimuli.
What do the Cannon-Bard Theory propose?
states emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously
what does the Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory propose?
states emotion results from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.
What does research say about cognition and emotion?
Cognitive appraisal significantly influences emotional responses.
How do the nervous system and body respond to emotional experiences?
sympathetic nervous system activates the body’s "fight or flight" response, while the parasympathetic nervous system calms the body afterward.
When do basic emotions begin to be seen, developmentally?
Basic emotions, like fear, anger, and happiness, appear in infants as early as 6 months of age.
How does chronic anger harm us?
increases stress hormones, which can lead to high blood pressure, heart disease, and immune system dysfunction.
What is catharsis?
the process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions.
What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?
when people feel good emotionally, they are more likely to act kindly and help others.
What is positive psychology?
the study of positive emotions, strengths, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life.
What is subjective well-being?
a person’s self-perceived happiness and life satisfaction.
3 pillars of positive psychology
positive well-being, positive traits, and positive groups, communities and cultures
What is the first pillar of positive psychology? (positive well-being)
satisfaction with past, happiness with present, and optimism about the future
what is the second pillar of positive psychology? (positive traits)
focuses on exploring and enhancing creativity, courage, compassion…
what is the third pillar of positive psychology? (positive groups, communities and cultures)
seeks to foster a positive social ecology
which days of the week are the happiest
Fridays and Saturdays
Do we overestimate or underestimate the duration of our emotions?
What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?
six factors that could predict happiness
Social relationships, Work and leisure, Gratitude, Exercise, Optimism, Religiosity
three factors that do not predict happiness:
Age, Gender, Physical appearance
What is stress?
the body's response to challenges or demands.
What are stressors?
events or conditions that trigger stress.
What is the fight or flight response?
The body's automatic reaction to stress, preparing to confront or escape the threat.
What is an example of a catastrophe and how does it affect a person?
natural disasters (earthquake)- creates extreme stress
what is an example of a significant life changes and how can it affect a person?
divorce, death- can disrupt normal routines and increase anxiety
what is an example of dailey hassles in our life and how does it increase our stress
traffic, work stress- accumulate over time, contributing to chronic stress
how does prejudice make daily hassles worse?
it can add to the stress load by creating feelings of being threatened, devalued, or socially excluded, worsening overall stress.
What are approach and avoidance motives?
the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus.
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
the body’s adaptive response to stress in 3 phases: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
What is the tend-and-befriend response?
where individuals seek social support and nurturing, especially common in women.
What is psychoneuroimmunology?
The study of how the brain, nervous system, and immune system interact, particularly concerning stress.
What happens to the immune system when it doesn’t function properly?
Immune suppression and autoimmune diseases can occur.
What is the relationship between stress and heart disease?
Type A personalities and pessimism can increase the risk of coronary heart disease.
Type A personality
Aggressive, most reactive, competitiveness, impatience, and hostility
Type B
easygoing, more relaxed
What are some ways to manage stress effectively?
Exercise, relaxation techniques, social support, and adequate sleep.
What is cognitive appraisal?
the process of interpreting an event or interaction and responding to it
What is coping?
the process of managing stress.
Problem focused coping
attempt to alleviate stress directly
Emotion focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction
what does maladapative mean?
not providing adequate or appropriate adjustment to the environment or situation
What are maladaptive coping strategies?
Behaviors such as substance abuse, avoidance, and aggression that worsen the problem over time.
How does a perceived lack of control affect health?
can lead to higher stress levels and worse health outcomes, as people feel helpless in managing their circumstances.
Describe Seligman’s studies
learned helplessness in dogs- showed that dogs who were repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable stressors (e.g., shocks) learned to become passive and stop trying to escape
What kinds of factors lead us to perceive a lack of control in our lives?
chronic stressors, feeling overwhelmed by life demands, and environments where external forces seem unpredictable or uncontrollable.
What is the tyranny of choice?
the overwhelming number of choices available, which can lead to stress, as people feel they are always missing out on the best option.
What are internal locus of control?
the belief that one can influence events and outcomes in their life
What are external locus of control?
the belief that external forces control one’s life.
What is explanatory style?
how we explain the causes of events
what are the kinds of explanatory styles:
A pessimistic style (blaming external, stable, and global factors) can lead to increased stress and poor coping, while an optimistic style can reduce stress and improve coping.
What is social support?
feeling liked and encouraged by friends and family
How does religiosity affect longevity?
it has been linked to increased longevity, possibly due to the social support, sense of purpose, and coping mechanisms that religious involvement provides.
What increases vulnerability to mental disorders?
Genetics, trauma, stress, chronic illness, lack of social support, and low socioeconomic status.
What is major depressive disorder?
persistent sadness and loss of interest affecting daily life.
What is bipolar disorder?
extreme mood swings between manic and depressive episodes.
What role do attributions play in social psychology?
Attributions influence our responses to others and shape relationships.
What is the foot-in-the-door phenomenon?
The tendency for people to agree to a small request first, making them more likely to agree to a larger one later.
What is cognitive dissonance?
The discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, often leading to attitude change.
What are the characteristics of social facilitation?
Improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.
stress vs anxiety?
Stress is the body’s response to external pressures or challenges, while anxiety is the emotional reaction to perceived threats, often occurring even in the absence of external stressors.
What do social psychologists study?
Social psychologists study how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, including the influence of others on one's behavior, attitudes, and perceptions.
What is attribution theory?
explains how people interpret and explain the causes of behavior.
what is the fundamental attribution error?
the tendency to overestimate the influence of personal traits (dispositional factors) and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.
What are situational attributions?
assign behavior to external factors (e.g., environment, circumstances)
What are dispositional attributions?
assign behavior to internal factors (e.g., personality, character)
Why do our attributions matter?
They influence how we respond to others, shape our relationships, and can affect our emotional reactions. They impact perceptions of fairness, trust, and responsibility.
What are attitudes?
beliefs and feelings that influence our reactions to people, objects, and events.
Peripheral route persuasion:
uses attention-getting cues to trigger speedy, emotion-based judgements
Central route persuasion:
offers evidence and arguments that trigger careful thinking
social contagion:
the spread of behaviors, emotions, or ideas through a group
What is conformity?
adjusting one’s behavior or beliefs to match those of others
Asch’s experiment
Participants were asked to match the length of lines. Many conformed to the incorrect answer given by others, demonstrating the power of group pressure.
What is normative social influence?
occurs when people conform to fit in with the group or gain approval, even if they do not personally agree with the group’s beliefs or actions.
