Psyc Test #3

Motivation and Emotion

How do psychologists define “motivation”?

• Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and sustains goal-oriented behaviors. It involves the activation of behavior and the direction, intensity, and persistence of that behavior.

List and explain four perspectives on motivated behavior.

1. Instinct Theory: Behaviors are motivated by innate biological instincts, which are hardwired into the body (e.g., migration in birds).

2. Drive-Reduction Theory: Motivated behavior arises from the need to reduce drives (e.g., hunger or thirst) to restore homeostasis.

3. Arousal Theory: We are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, not necessarily to reduce tension but to achieve excitement or stimulation.

4. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Motivated by a hierarchy of needs, beginning with basic physiological needs and progressing toward self-actualization.

What is an instinct?

• An instinct is an innate, unlearned pattern of behavior that is universal within a species, triggered by specific stimuli (e.g., rooting behavior in newborns).

What is homeostasis? What are incentives?

• Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state, such as temperature or blood sugar.

• Incentives: External stimuli or rewards that motivate behavior, such as money or praise.

What other forces besides hunger motivate us to eat?

• Social influences (e.g., eating with friends), emotional factors (e.g., stress or boredom), and environmental cues (e.g., food advertisements or availability).

How does the existence of curiosity support one of the four perspectives?

• Curiosity supports Arousal Theory. It suggests that people are motivated to explore and seek out novelty in order to achieve an optimal level of arousal.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law? What does it predict about behavior and arousal?

• The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance; too little arousal leads to boredom, and too much arousal leads to anxiety, impairing performance.

Describe the 5 original levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, in order.

1. Physiological needs: Basic survival needs (e.g., food, water, warmth).

2. Safety needs: Protection from harm and secure environments.

3. Belongingness and love needs: Social connections and relationships.

4. Esteem needs: Respect, self-esteem, and recognition.

5. Self-actualization: Achieving personal potential, creativity, and self-growth.

What is the “self-transcendence” level?

• Self-transcendence refers to the desire to go beyond personal self-interest, to help others and seek a higher meaning in life.

What is affiliation? What evidence points to a human need for affiliation?

• Affiliation: The need to form social bonds and relationships with others.

• Evidence: Humans have a biological drive for connection (e.g., emotional bonding, the need for social support, and the impact of social exclusion on well-being).

What is social identity and how does it boost health and well-being?

• Social identity is the part of an individual’s self-concept derived from their membership in social groups. It boosts well-being by providing a sense of belonging, purpose, and social support.

What happens in the brain when you are socially excluded or ostracized?

• Social exclusion activates areas of the brain involved in physical pain processing (e.g., the anterior cingulate cortex), indicating that social pain is processed similarly to physical pain.

How can social media help and harm our attempts to affiliate with other people?

• Helps: Facilitates easy connection and communication.

• Harms: Can lead to superficial interactions, comparisons, and feelings of isolation or inadequacy.

How is social media use associated with teen mental health?

• Increased social media use is linked to higher rates of anxiety, depression, and loneliness in teens due to social comparison and cyberbullying.

Does social media use predict future mental health?

• Yes, excessive social media use can predict future mental health issues, particularly depression and anxiety, due to negative self-comparisons and social pressures.

Does restricting social media use lead to decreased loneliness and depression?

• Yes, research shows that reducing social media use can lead to improved mood, decreased loneliness, and less depression.

What is narcissism and how is it related to social media use?

• Narcissism refers to excessive self-love and a need for admiration. Social media platforms, with their focus on self-presentation and validation, tend to amplify narcissistic tendencies.

What are some tips to help “unplug” from unhealthy technology use?

• Set limits on screen time, use apps that track and limit usage, prioritize face-to-face interactions, and practice mindfulness.

What is achievement motivation?

• Achievement motivation refers to the drive to pursue and attain goals, particularly those that involve personal success and excellence.

What is “grit”?

• Grit is the combination of passion and perseverance toward long-term goals, often associated with resilience in the face of setbacks.

What are extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?

• Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards (e.g., money, recognition).

• Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal rewards (e.g., personal satisfaction, passion).

Do the most successful people tend to be more intrinsically or more extrinsically motivated?

• Successful people tend to be more intrinsically motivated, as they are driven by internal goals and passions, which foster long-term commitment.

According to research, is intrinsic motivation increasing or decreasing in recent generations?

• Intrinsic motivation has been decreasing in recent generations, with many individuals being more extrinsically motivated due to external pressures and societal expectations.

Which is more important to success, intelligence or self-discipline?

• Self-discipline is more important for success than intelligence because it fosters persistence, effort, and resilience, which are key to achieving long-term goals.

Your textbook describes emotion as a mixture of three things. What are those three things?

• Emotion involves:

  1. Physiological arousal (e.g., heart rate increase).

  2. Expressive behaviors (e.g., smiling, frowning).

  3. Conscious experience (e.g., thoughts, feelings about the emotion).

What is the James-Lange Theory of emotion?

• The James-Lange Theory proposes that emotions result from our awareness of physiological responses to stimuli (e.g., we feel fear because we tremble).

What is the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion?

• The Cannon-Bard Theory suggests that emotional experiences and physiological responses occur simultaneously, not sequentially (e.g., we feel fear and tremble at the same time).

What is the Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory of emotion?

• The Two-Factor Theory states that emotion results from both physiological arousal and a cognitive label. We experience arousal, then interpret it based on the situation.

What does research say about the relationship between cognition and emotion?

• Research indicates that cognitive appraisal (how we interpret a situation) significantly influences our emotional responses. Our thoughts shape the emotions we experience.

How do the nervous system and body respond to emotional experiences?

• The sympathetic nervous system activates the body’s "fight or flight" response (e.g., increased heart rate, dilated pupils), while the parasympathetic nervous system calms the body afterward.

Stress and Health

When do basic emotions begin to be seen, developmentally?

• Basic emotions, like fear, anger, and happiness, appear in infants as early as 6 months of age.

What are some of the basic emotions?

• Basic emotions include fear, anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, and disgust.

How does chronic anger harm us?

• Chronic anger increases stress hormones, which can lead to high blood pressure, heart disease, and immune system dysfunction.

What is catharsis? According to research, does the expression of anger actually help us, or is it harmful?

• Catharsis refers to the release of pent-up emotions. Research shows that expressing anger may not be helpful and can often reinforce aggressive behavior, leading to more anger in the long term.

Describe three good ways to manage anger.

1. Cognitive Reappraisal: Changing how you think about a situation to reduce anger.

2. Relaxation Techniques: Deep breathing or mindfulness to calm the body.

3. Physical Exercise: Engaging in physical activity can reduce physiological arousal and help manage anger.

Why do moods matter? What are some effects of being gloomy? Of happiness?

• Moods affect our decisions, behavior, and relationships. Gloomy moods can lead to negative thinking, withdrawal, and low energy. Happiness is associated with better health, stronger relationships, and increased productivity.

What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?

• The feel-good, do-good phenomenon suggests that when people feel good emotionally, they are more likely to act kindly and help others.

What is positive psychology? What is subjective well-being?

• Positive psychology focuses on the study of positive emotions, strengths, and factors that contribute to a fulfilling life. Subjective well-being is a person’s self-perceived happiness and life satisfaction.

Describe each of the three pillars of positive psychology.

1. Positive Emotions: Experiencing joy, gratitude, and optimism.

2. Engagement: Being deeply involved in activities that use personal strengths.

3. Meaning: Pursuing goals that are bigger than oneself and contribute to society.

According to Kramer’s research, which days of the week are the happiest?

• People tend to report being happiest on Fridays and Saturdays, likely due to the anticipation of relaxation and social engagement.

Do we overestimate or underestimate the duration of our emotions?

• We tend to overestimate the duration of our emotions, believing that negative feelings (like sadness) will last much longer than they actually do.

Discuss some ways in which income affects happiness.

• Research shows that income increases happiness to a point, particularly when basic needs and security are met. Beyond that, additional income has a smaller effect on well-being.

What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?

• The adaptation-level phenomenon refers to the tendency to judge experiences relative to what we have previously experienced, leading us to return to a baseline level of happiness after positive or negative events.

What is relative deprivation?

• Relative deprivation is the perception that we are worse off compared to others, which can lead to dissatisfaction and unhappiness.

Know six factors that do predict happiness, and three that do not.

Factors that predict happiness:

1. Social relationships (strong friendships and family connections).

2. Work and leisure (engaging in meaningful work and enjoyable activities).

3. Gratitude (regularly practicing thankfulness).

4. Exercise (physical activity boosts mood).

5. Optimism (positive outlook on life).

6. Religiosity (religious engagement often correlates with higher well-being).

Factors that do not predict happiness:

1. Age

2. Gender

3. Physical appearance

What is stress? What is a stressor?

• Stress is the body's response to challenges or demands. A stressor is any event or condition that triggers stress.

Explain what “fight or flight” is, in relation to stressors.

• The fight or flight response is the body’s automatic reaction to stress, preparing us to either confront (fight) or escape (flight) a threat.

Describe how catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles increase our stress.

• Catastrophes (e.g., natural disasters) create extreme stress. Significant life changes (e.g., divorce, death) can disrupt normal routines and increase anxiety. Daily hassles (e.g., traffic, work stress) accumulate over time, contributing to chronic stress.

According to research, how does prejudice make daily hassles worse?

• Prejudice and discrimination can add to the daily stress load by creating feelings of being threatened, devalued, or socially excluded, worsening overall stress.

What are approach and avoidance motives? How do they affect stress levels?

• Approach motives drive us toward positive goals (e.g., success), while avoidance motives push us to escape negative outcomes (e.g., failure). Avoidance motives often lead to higher stress due to fear of negative consequences.

Describe the phases of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and what happens physically during each phase.

1. Alarm: The body reacts to stress with a "fight or flight" response (increased heart rate, stress hormone release).

2. Resistance: The body attempts to adapt to ongoing stress, maintaining high arousal.

3. Exhaustion: Prolonged stress leads to depletion of energy and vulnerability to illness.

What is a tend-and-befriend response, and who tends to use it most?

• The tend-and-befriend response is a stress response where people, especially women, seek social support and nurture others when stressed, rather than fight or flee.

What is psychoneuroimmunology?

• Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of how the brain, nervous system, and immune system interact, particularly how psychological stress can affect immune function.

What two things can happen to the immune system when it doesn’t function properly?

1. Immune suppression: Making the body more vulnerable to infections.

2. Autoimmune diseases: Where the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells.

Describe three specific ways that the human immune system is affected by stress.

1. Increased inflammation: Chronic stress can lead to higher levels of inflammation, which is linked to various diseases.

2. Weakened immune response: Stress hormones can suppress immune function, making it harder to fight off infections.

3. Chronic illness: Long-term stress is associated with conditions like heart disease and diabetes, which are influenced by immune system dysfunction.

How can stress affect a person’s ability to fight off cancer?

• Chronic stress can suppress immune function, decreasing the body’s ability to recognize and destroy cancer cells.

How are stress, personality, pessimism, and depression related to coronary heart disease?

• Type A personalities, which are more competitive and prone to anger, are at higher risk for coronary heart disease. Pessimism and depression can also contribute to increased stress and cardiovascular problems.

What are Type A and Type B personalities? Which is more prone to heart disease?

• Type A personalities are characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and hostility, which are linked to a higher risk of heart disease. Type B personalities are more relaxed and less prone to stress-related health issues.

How does stress lead to acute illness? Know the difference between the Direct Effects Hypothesis and the Indirect Effect Hypothesis.

• Direct Effects Hypothesis: Stress directly impacts the body’s immune system and physiology, increasing susceptibility to illness.

• Indirect Effects Hypothesis: Stress leads to unhealthy behaviors (e.g., smoking, poor diet) that indirectly increase the risk of illness.

Cognitive appraisal of stress: Understand the stages of the Transactional Model.

1. Primary Appraisal: Assessing whether an event is threatening or benign.

2. Secondary Appraisal: Evaluating available resources to cope with the event.

3. Coping: The strategies used to manage stress, based on primary and secondary appraisal.

What is coping? What are problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping?

• Coping is the process of managing stress.

  • Problem-focused coping involves addressing the problem causing the stress.

  • Emotion-focused coping involves managing the emotional response to the stress.

What are some examples of maladaptive coping?

• Maladaptive coping includes behaviors like substance abuse, avoidance, and aggression, which provide temporary relief but worsen the problem over time.

How does perceived lack of control affect health?

• A perceived lack of control can lead to higher stress levels and worse health outcomes, as people feel helpless in managing their circumstances.

Describe Seligman’s studies of learned helplessness in dogs.

• Seligman’s studies showed that dogs who were repeatedly exposed to uncontrollable stressors (e.g., shocks) learned to become passive and stop trying to escape, demonstrating the effects of learned helplessness.

What kinds of factors lead us to perceive a lack of control in our lives?

• Factors include chronic stressors, feeling overwhelmed by life demands, and environments where external forces seem unpredictable or

uncontrollable.

What is the tyranny of choice? How does it affect us?

• The tyranny of choice refers to the overwhelming number of choices available, which can lead to stress, decision paralysis, and dissatisfaction, as people feel they are always missing out on the best option.

What are internal and external locus of control? Which is associated with better outcomes overall? Which seems to be increasing in recent generations?

• Internal locus of control is the belief that one can influence events and outcomes in their life. It is associated with better outcomes, including better health and well-being. External locus of control is the belief that external forces control one’s life. This has been increasing in recent generations.

What are some ways to increase self-control? Why is it important?

• Increasing self-control involves practicing mindfulness, setting clear goals, and delaying gratification. It’s important for success, as self-discipline fosters persistence and resilience.

What is explanatory style? How does it affect how we cope with stress?

• Explanatory style refers to how we explain the causes of events. A pessimistic explanatory style (blaming external, stable, and global factors) can lead to increased stress and poor coping, while an optimistic explanatory style can reduce stress and improve coping.

Describe some ways in which social support affects our health.

• Social support can reduce stress, improve immune function, lower blood pressure, and increase longevity by providing emotional comfort, practical help, and a sense of belonging.

Describe several good ways to manage stress. Know the research that supports each method.

1. Exercise: Reduces stress hormones and increases endorphins.

2. Relaxation techniques: Mindfulness, meditation, and deep breathing reduce the physiological effects of stress.

3. Social support: Engaging with friends and family lowers stress and boosts health.

4. Sleep: Adequate sleep restores the body and helps cope with stress.

How can mindfulness help to reduce stress?

• Mindfulness involves focusing on the present moment without judgment, which reduces the impact of stress by fostering acceptance and reducing negative rumination.

How does religiosity affect longevity?

• Religiosity has been linked to increased longevity, possibly due to the social support, sense of purpose, and coping mechanisms that religious involvement provides.

What is the difference between stress and anxiety?

• Stress is the body’s response to external pressures or challenges, while anxiety is the emotional reaction to perceived threats, often occurring even in the absence of external stressors.

Social Psychology

What do social psychologists study?

• Social psychologists study how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, including the influence of others on one's behavior, attitudes, and perceptions.

What is attribution theory? Give an example of the fundamental attribution error.

• Attribution theory explains how people interpret and explain the causes of behavior.

  • Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the influence of personal traits (dispositional factors) and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

    • Example: If someone cuts in line, you might assume they’re rude (dispositional) rather than considering they might be late for an appointment (situational).

What are situational and dispositional attributions?

• Situational attributions assign behavior to external factors (e.g., environment, circumstances).

• Dispositional attributions assign behavior to internal factors (e.g., personality, character).

Describe several factors that influence our attributions.

• Factors include cultural norms, whether we have previous knowledge of the person, and whether the behavior is consistent or distinct (e.g., one-time vs. habitual).

Why do our attributions matter?

• Attributions influence how we respond to others, shape our relationships, and can affect our emotional reactions. They impact perceptions of fairness, trust, and responsibility.

What are attitudes? When do they affect our actions?

• Attitudes are beliefs and feelings that influence our reactions to people, objects, and events.

  • Attitudes influence actions when we are motivated to act according to our beliefs (e.g., environmental activism due to strong pro-environment beliefs).

How do actions affect attitudes?

• Actions can influence attitudes through processes like cognitive dissonance. If we act in a way that conflicts with our beliefs, we may change our attitudes to reduce discomfort.

Give an example of the foot-in-the-door phenomenon.

• The foot-in-the-door phenomenon occurs when people agree to a small request and are then more likely to agree to a larger, related request.

  • Example: If a person agrees to sign a petition, they are more likely to later donate money to the cause.

How does role-playing affect attitudes?

• Role-playing can shift attitudes because people tend to adopt behaviors and attitudes that align with the roles they play. For example, playing the role of a teacher can increase feelings of authority and responsibility.

What is cognitive dissonance? How does it affect our attitudes?

• Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.

  • It often leads to attitude change to reduce the discomfort. For example, if someone values health but smokes, they may justify smoking by downplaying the health risks.

What are the peripheral and central routes to persuasion?

• Peripheral route: Persuasion occurs through superficial cues (e.g., attractiveness of the speaker).

• Central route: Persuasion occurs through thoughtful consideration of the message’s content and logic.

Give an example of social contagion.

• Social contagion refers to the spread of behaviors, emotions, or ideas through a group.

  • Example: If one person starts laughing in a group, it often triggers laughter in others, even if they don't know the cause.

What is conformity? Describe Asch’s experiment and its results.

• Conformity is adjusting one’s behavior or beliefs to match those of others.

  • Asch’s experiment: Participants were asked to match the length of lines. Many conformed to the incorrect answer given by others, demonstrating the power of group pressure.

What is normative social influence?

• Normative social influence occurs when people conform to fit in with the group or gain approval, even if they do not personally agree with the group’s beliefs or actions.

What is informational social influence?

• Informational social influence occurs when people conform because they believe the group has accurate information, and they want to be correct.

Describe the procedures and results of Milgram’s experiment on obedience.

• Milgram’s experiment: Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner (who was actually an actor) when incorrect answers were given. Results showed that a majority of participants were willing to administer dangerous shocks when instructed by an authority figure.

When were the rates of obedience highest in Milgram’s studies?

• Rates of obedience were highest when the authority figure was perceived as legitimate (e.g., wearing a lab coat), when the learner was not visible, and when the participant was in close proximity to the authority figure.

Describe some real-life examples of obedience.

• Examples include soldiers following orders in wartime, employees obeying workplace rules, and people adhering to government mandates during public health emergencies.

How do social control and personal control interact?

• Social control refers to the ways society influences individual behavior. Personal control is an individual’s ability to make their own choices. The balance between the two determines how much a person conforms or resists social pressures.

Give an example of social facilitation. What causes it?

• Social facilitation refers to improved performance on tasks in the presence of others.

  • Example: Athletes often perform better during competitions in front of an audience. The presence of others increases arousal, enhancing performance on simple or well-practiced tasks.

Give an example of social loafing. What causes it?

• Social loafing occurs when people exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

  • Example: In a group project, some members may contribute less effort, assuming others will pick up the slack.

What is deindividuation?

• Deindividuation is the loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility in group situations, often leading to behavior that goes against personal norms (e.g., rioting, mob behavior).

Describe the process of group polarization.

• Group polarization occurs when group discussion strengthens a prevailing opinion or attitude, leading to more extreme positions.

What is diffusion of responsibility? In what types of situations are bystanders most likely to help another person in trouble?

• Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for individuals to feel less accountable in the presence of others.

  • Bystanders are more likely to help when they are alone or in a group with strong social norms for helping, or when they feel personally responsible.

What is groupthink?

• Groupthink occurs when the desire for harmony and conformity within a group results in irrational decision-making, often leading to poor outcomes because dissenting opinions are suppressed.

What are prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination?

• Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group.

• Stereotyping is applying generalized beliefs to members of a group.

• Discrimination is the behavior that treats people unfairly based on their group membership.

How can the fundamental attribution error play a role in stereotyping?

• The fundamental attribution error can lead people to assume that someone’s behavior is a reflection of their personal traits rather than considering the situational factors, which can reinforce stereotypes.

How is implicit prejudice studied?

• Implicit prejudice is studied through tools like the Implicit Association Test (IAT), which measures unconscious biases by examining the speed of associations between different groups and concepts.

What groups are frequent targets of prejudice?

• Common targets of prejudice include racial and ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, women, and people with disabilities.

Describe the procedures and results of studies of implicit bias in perception of threat (identifying guns versus common objects).

• Studies show that people are quicker to identify guns when the individual is Black, reflecting an implicit bias where people associate Black individuals with threat more readily than White individuals.

Describe examples of how gender prejudice persists today.

• Gender prejudice persists in the form of unequal pay, gender roles, underrepresentation in leadership positions, and societal expectations of behavior based on gender.

Describe examples of how anti-LGBTQ prejudice persists today.

• Anti-LGBTQ prejudice is seen in workplace discrimination, denial of rights (e.g., marriage equality), and societal stigmatization of non-heteronormative sexual orientations.

What is the just world phenomenon?

• The just world phenomenon is the belief that the world is inherently fair, leading people to assume that individuals get what they deserve (e.g., blaming victims of injustice for their misfortunes).

What are ingroup and outgroup biases?

• Ingroup bias is the tendency to favor one’s own group over others.

• Outgroup bias is the tendency to view members of other groups negatively, often leading to discrimination.

Describe scapegoat theory.

• Scapegoat theory suggests that when people experience frustration or failure, they may direct their anger at an outgroup, blaming them for their problems.

Why does victim-blaming occur?

• Victim-blaming occurs because people want to believe the world is just, so they attribute the victim’s misfortune to their own actions, which reassures them that they themselves are safe.

What are some psychological and social causes of aggressive behavior?

• Psychological causes include frustration, cognitive distortions, and past trauma. Social causes include exposure to violence, media violence, and social norms that condone aggression.

Are violent video games associated with real violence?

• Research suggests a small correlation between violent video games and aggressive behavior, but this link is not strong enough to establish causation.

Psychological Disorders

How are psychological disorders defined?

• Psychological disorders are patterns of thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are disturbing, dysfunctional, and inconsistent with cultural norms, causing significant distress or impairment in daily life.

Trace the history of how mental illness has been viewed from the Middle Ages until the present day.

• In the Middle Ages, mental illness was often viewed as a result of demonic possession or sin, leading to treatments like exorcism.

  • During the Enlightenment, the medical model emerged, which suggested mental illness had physical causes.

  • In the 20th century, more humane treatments developed, and the biopsychosocial model integrated biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental disorders.

Who was Philippe Pinel?

• Philippe Pinel was a French physician who advocated for more humane treatment of the mentally ill in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, removing physical restraints and promoting moral therapy.

What is the "medical model"?

• The medical model views mental disorders as diseases with biological causes, symptoms, and potential cures, emphasizing diagnosis and treatment similar to physical illnesses.

Describe the biopsychosocial approach to mental illness.

• The biopsychosocial approach integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental illness, suggesting that disorders arise from the interaction of genetics, environment, and individual experiences.

What is the DSM-5?

• The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) is a classification system used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental disorders based on specific criteria.

What are some criticisms of the DSM’s classification and labeling of mental disorders?

• Criticisms include concerns that it pathologizes normal behavior, over-diagnoses, and can lead to stigma or discrimination. Some also argue it emphasizes a medical model rather than a more holistic view of mental health.

What is the evidence regarding psychological disorders and causing harm to self or others?

• Most individuals with psychological disorders are not violent and are more likely to be victims of violence. However, those with severe mental illnesses (e.g., schizophrenia) may sometimes be at risk for self-harm or aggression.

Know some differences in suicide rates of different groups.

• Suicide rates are higher among men than women, with men using more lethal methods. Rates are also higher among individuals with mood disorders, LGBTQ+ youth, and certain age groups (e.g., elderly men).

Know ways to help someone who is thinking about suicide.

• Offer emotional support, listen non-judgmentally, encourage them to seek professional help, and provide resources (e.g., suicide hotlines). Take any talk of suicide seriously.

What is nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)? What are the characteristics of people who engage in NSSI?

• NSSI involves intentionally hurting oneself (e.g., cutting, burning) without the intent to die, often as a way to cope with emotional pain. Those who engage in NSSI may struggle with depression, anxiety, or difficulty managing emotions.

Are people with psychological disorders more likely to be victims or perpetrators of violence?

• People with psychological disorders are more likely to be victims of violence, not perpetrators. However, those with certain conditions (e.g., untreated schizophrenia) may exhibit violent behaviors under extreme stress.

How many people have a psychological disorder? What disorders are most common?

• About 1 in 4 adults experience a mental disorder each year. The most common disorders include anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, and substance use disorders.

What is the immigrant paradox?

• The immigrant paradox refers to the phenomenon where immigrants often exhibit better mental health outcomes than their native-born counterparts, despite facing challenges such as poverty and discrimination.

What increases vulnerability to mental disorders?

• Risk factors include genetics, trauma, stress, chronic illness, lack of social support, low socioeconomic status, and family history of mental illness.

What is an anxiety disorder?

• Anxiety disorders involve excessive and persistent fear or anxiety that interferes with daily life. They include disorders like generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder, and phobias.

What are the characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)?

• GAD involves excessive, uncontrollable worry about a range of topics, leading to physical symptoms like restlessness, fatigue, and difficulty concentrating. It lasts for at least six months.

What are the characteristics of panic disorder?

• Panic disorder involves recurring panic attacks, which are sudden, intense periods of fear or discomfort, often with symptoms like heart palpitations, sweating, shaking, and a fear of losing control or dying.

What are the characteristics of a specific phobia?

• A specific phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation (e.g., heights, spiders, flying), leading to avoidance behavior that interferes with daily functioning.

What are the characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?

• OCD involves obsessions (recurrent, intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors performed to alleviate anxiety). For example, someone may have an obsession with germs and perform rituals like hand washing.

What are the characteristics of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

• PTSD occurs after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event and includes symptoms like flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance of reminders, and hyperarousal (e.g., being easily startled).

What is a somatic symptom disorder? What is an illness anxiety disorder?

• Somatic symptom disorder involves physical symptoms (e.g., pain, fatigue) that are distressing or disruptive, without a clear medical cause.

  • Illness anxiety disorder involves excessive worry about having a serious illness, despite little or no symptoms.

How does conditioning contribute to anxiety disorders?

• Classical conditioning can lead to anxiety disorders by associating a neutral stimulus with fear (e.g., a traumatic event). Operant conditioning can maintain anxiety behaviors through reinforcement (e.g., avoiding feared objects).

How does cognition contribute to anxiety disorders?

• Cognitive factors include distorted thinking patterns, such as catastrophizing (expecting the worst) and selective attention to threats, which increase anxiety.

How does biology contribute to anxiety disorders?

• Biological factors include genetic predispositions, irregularities in neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, GABA), and overactive brain regions (e.g., amygdala) involved in fear responses.

What is major depressive disorder? Bipolar disorder?

• Major depressive disorder involves persistent sadness, loss of interest, and physical symptoms (e.g., fatigue, sleep issues) for at least two weeks.

  • Bipolar disorder involves extreme mood swings, from manic episodes (euphoria, high energy) to depressive episodes (low mood, lethargy).

What are the major characteristics of major depressive disorder?

• Symptoms include persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, fatigue, sleep disturbances, weight changes, and thoughts of death or suicide.

What is mania?

• Mania is a period of abnormally elevated mood, high energy, and impulsive behavior, often leading to risky decisions. It is characteristic of bipolar disorder.

What are some of the facts about depression that a good theory needs to explain?

• A good theory of depression needs to explain:

  1. The onset (e.g., stress, trauma).

  2. The chronicity (why it persists).

  3. The gender difference (higher rates in women).

  4. The cognitive patterns (negative thinking, rumination).

  5. The biological basis (neurotransmitter imbalances, brain structure).

What are some biological influences on depression?

• Genetics: Family history of depression increases risk.

• Neurotransmitters: Imbalances in serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine are linked to depression.

• Brain structure: Abnormalities in areas like the prefrontal cortex and amygdala.

How does the social-cognitive perspective explain depression?

• The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression is influenced by negative thinking patterns, learned helplessness, and the way individuals interpret events (e.g., internalizing failures).

What is the “vicious cycle” of depression?

• The vicious cycle of depression occurs when negative thoughts lead to negative behaviors, which further reinforce negative feelings, perpetuating the cycle of depression.