MAN 3025 - Module 10 Notes

Motivation

the psychological processes that arouse and direct goal-directed behavior

Extrinsic Reward

rewards given by other (the payoff, such as money, recognition, or encouragement, etc.)

Intrinsic Reward

satisfaction, such as a feeling of accomplishment, a person receives from performing the particular task itself

Four Major Perspectives on Motivation

(1) Content - emphasizes needs as motivators

(2) Process - focuses on the thoughts and perceptions that motivate behavior

(3) Job Design - focuses on designing jobs that lead to employee satisfaction and performance

(4) Reinforcement - motivation is a function of behavioral consequences not unmet needsontC

Content Perspectives

theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people

Needs

physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behaviors

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

proposes that people are motivated by five levels of needs 

• physiological = need for food and clothing (most important)

• safety = need for physical, emotional, and job security

• love = need for friendship and affection

• esteem = need for self-respect, status, etc.

• self-actualization = need for self-fulfillment

Maslow’s work paved way for organization to think how they can improve their employee’s overall well-being

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Thoery

Two Important Assumptions:

1. Needs are learned

2. One need often dominates

There are three needs (achievement, affiliation, and power)

Achievement - desire to excel and do better or more efficiently

Affiliation - desire for friendly and warm relations with other people

Power - desire to be responsible for other people or influence their behavior

Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory

assumes that people are driven to try to grow and attain fulfillment

• Focuses on intrinsic motivation and rewards

  • intrinsic is longer lasting and has a more positive impact on task performance

Competence - people want to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable of completing a goal or task

• Managers can provide time for mentoring, coaching, etc.

Autonomy - people want to feel they have freedom and discretion

• Managers should develop trust and delegate tasks

Relatedness - people need to feel a sense of belonging of attachment to others

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

proposed that work satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different factors (work satisfaction from motivating factors and work dissatisfaction for hygiene factors)

• Hygiene Factors (lower-level needs) - salary, working conditions, interpersonal relationships, and company policy 

• Motivating Factors (higher-level needs) - achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement

First, climate dissatisfaction (make pay levels, company policies, etc. reasonable) 

Then, spurr motivation ( provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, etc.)

Process Perspectives

concerned with the thought process by which people decide how to act

Equity Theory

a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges

• based on COGNITIVE DISSONANCE ( the psychological discomfort people experience between their cognitive attitudes and incompatible behaviors

- Theory suggests that people compare the ration of their outcomes against others

• When people perceive “inequity”, they feel resentful and act to change the inequity

Perceived Inequity = reduce their inputs, leave the job, etc.

Distributive Justice

reflected the perceived fairness of the outcomes being distributed or allocated among employees

• ex. when employees have fair share of rewards and resources

Procedural Justice

the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions

• ex. when employees can voice their opinions

Interactional Justice

how organizational representatives treat employees in the process of implementing procedures and making decisions

• ex. managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect

Voice

employees’ expression of work-related concerns, ideas, and/or constructive suggestions to managers

• knowledge of equity and justice theories allows you to hear and better understand your employee concerns and coworkers

Justice Climate

shared sense of fairness felt by the entire workgroup

• increased job satisfaction

  • more helping behaviors 

Expectancy Theory

how much effort to exert in a specific task situation

• Expectancy.- the belief that a particular level of effort will lead to a particular level of performance

  • High Expectancy = the more hours I spend studying, the better my grade will be

  • Low Expectancy = regardless of how much I practice, I will never…

• Instrumentality - successful performance of the task will lead to the outcome desired

• Valence - the importance a worker assigns to the possible outcome or reward

Managers should think, “what rewards will motivate my employees?”

Goal-Setting Theory

suggest that employees can be motivated by goals that are specific and challenging but achievable 

1. Direct Attention toward goal-relevant tasks

2. Regulate Effort based on goal’s difficulty and time deadlines

3. Increase persistence - goal setting makes obstacles challenges to be overcome, not reasons to fail

4. Foster the use of strategies and action plans - makes it more more likely that you’ll realize success

Stretch Goals

goals beyond what they actually expect to achieve

• ex. forcing people out of their comfort zones to achieve more, building employees’ confidence when they succeed, etc.

Cons: Sometimes can demotivate employees if goals seem unattainable, lead companies to take unnecessary risks, etc.

Goals Should Be:

• Specific

• Linked to Action Plans

• Have the correct conditions (employees must have the ability to achieve the goal, be committed to the goals, and receive timely feedback)

Job Design

(1) the division of an organization’s work among its employees and (2) the application of motivational theories to jobs to increase satisfaction and performance

Scientific Management

the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs
Pros: worker can focus on one task

Cons: research says that simplified jobs lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, and low sense of accomplishment and personal growth

2 Techniques to Make Work Compatible with the Worker for Higher Performance

Job Enlargement and Job Enrichment

Job Enlargement

increase the number of tasks in a job to increase variety and motivation
- horizontal loading (addition tasks of similar difficulty)

Jon Enrichment

building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement

• vertical loading (more responsibility)

Job Characteristics Model

the 5 core characteristics affect a worker’s motivation because it affects the 3 psychological states
- these psychological states fuel the outcomes Contingency Factors = a person wants personal and psychological development

Prosocial Motivation

the desire to benefit others
Pros:

• Social capital (coworkers trust prosocial motivated employees and see them having leadership potential)

• Working harder (people work harder bc of fear of letting others down and anticipation others will be grateful for their efforts)

• Working Together (prosocial motivation prompt ppl to share information with others)

• Working Smarter (they gather and analyze information from multiple perspectives to create more creative ideas)

• Working Safer (prosocially motivated prompts employees to share information with others)

B.F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

the process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

behavior with favorable consequences tends to be repeated while behavior with unfavorable consequences tends to disappear

Reinforcement Theory

attempts to explain behavior change by suggesting that behavior with positive consequences tends to be repeated and vice versa

Reinforcement

anything that strengthens the likelihood that a given behavior will be repeated in the future
1. Positive Reinforcement

2. Negative Reinforcement

3. Extinction

4. Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

introduction of positive consequences to strengthen the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again

• Giving rewards as soon as possible

• Be clear about what behavior is desired

• Reward only desirable behavior

Negative Reinforcement

removal stimulus to strengthen the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future

Extinction

decrease the likelihood that a particular behavior will occur again in the future by ignoring it or making sure it is not reinforced

Punishment

decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again in the future by presenting something negative or withdrawing something positive

• Punish only undesirable behavior

• Give reprimands and disciplinary actions as soon as possible

• Administer punishment in private

Pay For Performance

bases pay on one’s results

• Piece Rate = employees are paid according to how much output they produce

• Sales Commission = sales representatives are paid a percentage of the earnings the company made from their sales

Bonuses

cash awards given to employees who achieve specific performance objectives

Profit Sharing

distribution to employees of a percentage of the company profits

Gainsharing

distribution of savings or “gains” to groups of employees who reduced costs and increased measurable productivity

• Stock Options = certain employees are given the right to buy the company’s stocks at a future date at a discounted price

  • Pay for Knowledge = employee pay to the number of job relevant skills or academic degrees they earn

Work-Life Benefits

initiatives and programs that employers implement in an effort to help employees balance the often competing needs of their work and home lives

• Vacations, Sabbaticals, Flexible work arrangements, etc.