race, ethnic and cultural representation

White and minority ppts rated racially themed memes to be more offensive than non-racial themed memes

- Experience of microaggressions predicted ratings of racial themed memes, with minority ppts who experienced more microaggressions rating such memes are more offensive

Williams et al 2016

White suspects were judged as less guilty than Black suspects

Exposure to the ethnicity of a criminal suspect had significant impact on attitudes towards people of that ethnicity in wider society.

- viewing a black suspect produced unfavourable attitudes black people more widely

Mastro et al 2009

Non-black directors casted black characters in 11% of roles whereas Black directors cast black characters in 46% of roles

Smith et al 2014

Negative media portrayals of immigration has a dehumanising impact on migrants and undermines the legitimacy of immigration

Esses et al 2013

White people who spent more time playing video games had less favourable views of black people. This effect was not moderated by everyday interactions with people from other ethnic backgrounds

Behm-Morawitz and Ta 2014

Negative news stories about immigrants impacted on audiences prosociality. Findings were stronger for right wing and high prejudice individuals

Conzo et al 2021

From 2009-2016, white people became less implicitly and explicitly pro-white during the BLM movement

Sawyer and Gampa 2018

4 stages of minority representation:

Non recognition

Ridicule

Regulation

Respect

Clark 1969

In news report of the opiate crisis, there is greater focus on public health and medicalisation and greater use of personal narratives

However, in news reports of crack cocaine crisis, there is greater focus on public safety and criminalisation

Lindsay and Vuolo 2021

White directors were provided significantly larger budgets by film distributors compared to black directors

Erigha 2018

Ppts who read stereotypical news stories were more likely to show stereotyped opinions compared to those who read counter-stereotypical stories, who demonstrated significantly lower levels of symbolic racist beliefs

Ramasubramanian 2015

Children who watched positive outgroup (other culture or ethnicity) educational videos showed improved attitudes towards these groups

Vittrup and Holden 2011

Studetns encouraged to critically reflect on stereotypical media depictions of black people demonstrated awareness of the impact of this media on the audience. However, when creating own prijects they still relied on stereotypical portrayal of black people in constructing plots and characters

Kavoori 2007

Minimal changes to satisfaction with amount of white and black TV characters from 1998-2024

Increased depictions of Hispanic, Asian and indigenous characters

Martins et al 2024

White male characters were overrepresented in gaming magazines, and Aliens were featured more than minority characters.

Minority males were more aggressive than white males (whose aggression was legitimised by context i.e war settings)

White characters were more likely to be in the foreground of videogame covers compared to Black or Asian characters

Burgess et al 2011

News reports associated with BLM protests/movement were more likely to be associated with threat and violence

Reid and Craig 2021

Black and Latino characters were more likeable compared to Asian characters.

Almost a quarter of Latino characters were hypersexualised, which wasn't vert apparent for Black or Asian characters

Tukachinsky et al 2015

Non minority directors are favoured in project assigment, budgeting and distribution

Kamiouchina et al 2023

• 73% of the news stories were delivered by a White reporter, 16% by Black reporters and 3% Latinx. No Asian or indigenous reporters were identified.

• Black focused stories were almost 3x more likely to be about crime compared to white-focused stories

• Minorities were less likely to be interviewed as a news source/or interviewed as an expert

Poindexter et al 2003

News articles described crimes against white victims using more fearful language

Whereas, minority victims of crime were blamed for their own victimisation

Collins 2014

News reports overrepresented white people as victims of violent crime, and underrepresented Black people

White people were overrepresented as police officers and black people underrepresented

Dixon et al 2003

News stories for white victims were 3x longer than for black victims

Black perpetrators were more likely to be shown in a mugshot, jail clothing or restrained compared to white perpetrators who were shown in less 'criminal' contexts

Entman and Rojecki 2000

Teenage immigrants found the Internet as a positive media source to support their immigration journey

Source of information

Cultural resource for social empowerment

Communication platform

Adopting new roles and identities

Elias and Lemish 2009

News statements containing at least 1 form of prejudicial information were 2x more likely to be associated with Black or Latinx suspects

• even more so when the victim was white

Dixon and Linz 2002