AP Pyschology - The Biological Perspective

Neuron

Specialized cell in nervous system that recieves and send messages

Dendrites

Branchlike structures of a neuron that recieve messages from other neurons

Soma

Cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of a cell

Axon

Fiber attached to the soma, it’s job to carry messages out to other cells

Myelin

a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers (axons) in the nervous system.

Multiple sclerosis

is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS). It occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective myelin sheath surrounding nerve fibers, leading to communication problems between the brain and the rest of the body. .

Glial cells

Cells that provide support for neurons to grow on and around

Action potential

The release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reveal of electrical charge within the axon, neg or pos

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

All-or-non principle

A neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all

Depolarization

The process of reducing the negative charge inside a neuron’s cell membrane relative to the outside

Refractory period

A period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Threshold

Triggers action potential

Synapse (synaptic gap)

Microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell

Neurotransmitter

chemicals found in the synaptic vesicles that when released has effect on the next cell.

Excitatory effect

turns cells on

Inhibitory effect

turns cells off

Antagonist

chemical substance, blocks/reduces effects of a neurotransmitter

Agonist

chemical substance, mimics/enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitter are taken back into synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitters

chemicals found in synaptic vesicles that when released has effect on the next cell

Acetylcholine

excitatory or inhibitory; involved in arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle contractions

Myasthenia Gravis

autoimmune disorders, body autoimmune mistakenly produces antibodies that attack (ach) receptors,

Dopamine

excitatory or inhibitory: involved in control of movement and sensations of power

Serotonin

excitatory or inhibitory: involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite

Glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in learning, memory form action, nervous system in development, synaptic plasticity

GABA

major inhibitory neurotransmitter, involved in sleep and inhibits movement

Endorphins

inhibitor neural regulators, involved in pain relief

Occipital lobes

sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, temp, and body position

Visual cortex

part of the brain located in the occipital lobe, responsible for processing visual information.

Parietal lobes

sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the center for touch, temp, and body

Somatosensory cortex

area of the cortex at the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing info from the skin, and interval body receptors for touch, temp, and body position.

Temporal lobes

along side of brain behind temples, containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech

Wernicke’s area/ aphasia

Unable to understand or produce meaningful language

Frontal lobes

located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech

Motor cortex

rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech.

Broca’s area/aphasia

Damage to Broca’s area, unable to speak fluently, mispronounce words

Neuroplasticity

Ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to trauma or experience

Leisioning studies

Insertion of a thin, insulated, electrode into the brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying the brain cells at the tip of the wire. (Typically done to animals)

CT

brain imaging method using computer controlled x-rays of the plain

MRI

radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

EEG

recording of the electrical activity of large groups of the cortical nervous just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes

FMRI

functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygentation

Hindbrain

The hindbrain is a region of the brain located at the lower back part of the skull.

Medulla

first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Pons

the large swelling above the medulla that relays information from the cortex of the cerebellum. (sleeping, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.

Reticular formation (reticular activating system)

keeps people awake and alert

Cerebellum

involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement

Brain stem

critical part of the central nervous system, located at the base of the brain. It connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls essential functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also regulates sleep and wakefulness and serves as a pathway for nerve signals between the brain and the body.

Limbic system

structures of the brain, learning, emotion, memory, and motivation

Thalamus

forebrain that relays info from sensory organs to the cerebal cortex

Hypothalamus

regulates fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression we feel

Hippocampus

learning, memory, and ability to compare sensory info to expectations

Amygdala

motivation, emotional control, fear response, and interpretations of nonverbal emotional responses

Cortex

outermost covring of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons responsible for higher thought processes and interpretations of sensory input

Cerebral hemispheres

2 sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain

Cortex specialization

refers to the process by which different regions of the cerebral cortex become specialized for specific functions. This includes areas responsible for sensory processing, motor control, language, and higher cognitive functions.

Corpus callosum

thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebal hemispheres

Contralateral hemisphere organization

refers to the neurological principle where each hemisphere of the brain primarily controls the opposite side of the body.

Longitudinal fissure

the deep fissure between the two hemispheres of the brain

Split brain research

involves studying patients who have undergone a corpus callosotomy, a surgical procedure that severs the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerves connecting the two hemispheres of the brain.

Nervous system

A complex network of nerves and cells that transmits signals between different parts of the body, responsible for coordinating actions and sensory information.

Central nervous system

Consists of brain and spinal cord

Spinal cord reflex (reflex arc)

long bundle of neurons that carris messages between the body and brain responsible for very fast life saving reflexes

connection of the afferent neurons to the interneruons to the efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action

Sensory neurons

carries info from the senses to the central nervous system

Motor neurons

carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body

Interneurons

connect the sensory neurons to the motor neurons

Peripheral nervous system

all nerves and neurons not contained in brain and spinal cord but run through the body itself

Somatic nervous system

nerves control the voluntary muscles of the body

Autonomic nervous system

nerves control involuntary muscles, organs, and glands

Sympathetic division

part of the autonomic nervous system, responsible for the body's "fight or flight" response. It prepares the body to respond to stress or emergencies by increasing heart rate, dilating airways, and redirecting blood flow to essential muscles. It operates involuntarily and works in conjunction with the parasympathetic division, which promotes "rest and digest" functions.

Parasympathetic division

restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and responsible for the day to day functioning of the organs and glands

Endocrine system

glands and organs that make hormones and release them to directly into the blood

Hormones

chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands

Pituitary gland

gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone secreting glands