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Mary Whiton Calkins
American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association
Charles Darwin
English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection
Dorothea Dix
Activist who helped improve conditions of mental patients
Sigmun Freud
Create psychoanalytical subfield of psychology
G.Stanley Hall
American psychologist and educator. focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory.
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Carl Rogers
Humanisic; self-concept and unconditional positive regard drive personality
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Margaret Floy Washburn
First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology
John B. Watson
famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
Wilhelm Wundt
german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879
Structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Gestalt Psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
Psycholanalytic
Attempt to explain how behavior and personality are influenced by unconscious processes
Humanistic Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose any destiny.
Evolutionary Approach
An approach to psychology centered on evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors.
Biological Approach
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
Cognitive Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
Sociocultural Approach
An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.
Biological Domain
Humans are collections of biological systems, and these systems provide building blocks for behavior, thought, and emotion
Clinical Domain
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Cognitive Domain
changes in thinking, memory, problem solving, and other intellectual skills
Counseling Domain
assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
Developmental Domain
study of psychological growth across human lifespan
Educational Domain
studies how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
Experimental Domain
Studies behavior and thinking using the experimental method
Industrial-Organizational Domain
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
Personality Domain
those aspects of development that involve acquiring relatively stable and enduring traits, as well as a sense of self as an individual
Psychometric Domain
Studies measurements of human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
Social Domain
change in variables that are associated with the relationship of an individual to others
Positive Domain
focuses on positive aspects and strengths of human behavior
Ethical Guidelines APA
confidentiality, informed consent, debriefing, deception must be warranted
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
critical thinking
the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.
theory
An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
hypothesis
testable prediction
operational definition
A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.
Case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Population
all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
a variable (often denoted by x ) whose variation does not depend on that of another.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
motor neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
dendrite
A neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.
action potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
somatic nervus system
voluntary control of skeletal muscle
autonomic nervous system
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus
endocrine system
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
adrenal glands
glands that help the body recover from stress and respond to emergencies
pituitary glands
The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
lesion
tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
EEG
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
CT scan
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated imagess of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
fMRI
A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
reticular formation
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
limbic system
associated with emotion and drives
amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
hypothalamus
directs maintenance activties and is liked to emotion and reward
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
frontal lobe
A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement
parietal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
occipital lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
temporal lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
sensory cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).