Chapter 10 - Language in Context

Linguistic Relativity (Sapir–Whorf hypothesis)

Speakers of different languages have somewhat differing cognitive systems. These different cognitive systems influence the ways people think about the world.

(In other words, the idea that the language you speak influences how you think and perceive the world.)

Linguistic Universals

characteristic patterns across all languages of various cultures—and relativity.

(In other words, patterns or properties found across all or most human languages, aiming to reveal fundamental aspects of language structure and the human mind.)

Bilinguals

people who can speak two languages

Monolinguals

people who can speak only one language

Dual-system hypothesis 

suggests that two languages are represented somehow in separate systems of the mind.

Ex. Children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously develop two separate language systems from the start, rather than merging them into one. 

Single-system hypothesis

suggests that two languages are represented in just one system or brain region. 

Dialect

a regional variety of a language distinguished by features such as vocabulary, syntax, and pronunciation.

Slips of the tongue

One way to use language incorrectly; inadvertent linguistic errors in what we say. This may occur at any level of linguistic analysis: phonemes, morphemes, or larger units of language. 

(What we think and what we mean to say do not correspond to what we actually do say.)

Anticipation 

the speaker uses a language element before it is appropriate in the sentence because it corresponds to an element that will be needed later in the utterance.

Ex. Instead of saying, “an inspiring expression,” a speaker might say, “an expiring expression.”

Perseveration

the speaker uses a language element that was appropriate earlier in the sentence but that is not appropriate later on.

Ex. a speaker might say, “We sat down to a bounteous beast” instead of a “bounteous feast.

Substitution

the speaker substitutes one language element for another.

Ex. you may have warned someone to do something “after it is too late,” when you meant “before it is too late.”

Reversals (Transposition)

the speaker switches the positions of two language elements.

Ex. The reversal that reportedly led “flutterby” to become “butterfly.”

Spoonerisms

The initial sounds of two words are reversed and make two entirely different words.

Ex. Some of his choicest slips include, “You have hissed all my mystery lectures.  [missed all my history lectures]

Malapropism

one word is replaced by another that is similar in sound but different in meaning.
Ex. substituting words like, “pineapple of politeness" for "pinnacle of politeness”

Metaphors

juxtapose two nouns in a way that positively asserts their similarities, while not disconfirming their dissimilarities. 

Ex. the house was a pigsty, or abused children are a walking time bomb. 

Pragmatics

the study of how people use language. It includes sociolinguistics and other aspects of the social context of language.

Similes

introduce the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ into a comparison between items.

Ex. the child was as quiet as a mouse

Cooperative principle

principle in conversation that holds that we seek to communicate in ways that make it easy for our listener to understand what we mean

Aphasia

impairment of language functioning caused by damage to the brain.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

caused by damage to Wernicke’s area of the brain; notable impairment in the understanding of spoken words and sentences. It also typically involves the production of sentences that have the basic structure of the language spoken but that make no sense.

Broca’s Aphasia 

damage to Broca’s area of the brain; it is characterized by the production of agrammatical speech at the same time that verbal comprehension ability is largely preserved.

Global Aphasia 

combination of highly impaired comprehension and production of speech. It is caused by lesions to both Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. 

Anomic Aphasia 

difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words. The patient may look at an object and simply be unable to retrieve the word that corresponds to the object.