PSK4U Exam Review

Anatomy

How living things are structured or put together (organized)

Physiology

Study of body processes: growth, metabolism, reproduction, etc.

Kinesiology

Science dealing with the interrelationship of the physiological processes and anatomy of the human body with respect to movement

Exercise physiology

The sciences of human performance under physical stress and the relationship between physical activity and the structure and function of the human body.

Anatomical position

Standing with feet together, palms facing forward and head looking forward.

Sagittal plane + horizontal axis

Plane: divides body into a left and right side

Axis: goes right through the plane

Transverse plane + Longitudinal axis

Plane: divides the body into a top and bottom section

Axis: goes through the plane (head to toe)

Frontal plane + antero-posterior axis

Plane: divides the body into a front and back

Axis: goes through the plane (front to back)

Lateral

Further away from the midline

Medial

Closer to the midline

Anterior (ventral)

Towards the front or the front surface of a body part

Posterior (Dorsal)

Towards the back or back surface of a body part

Superior

towards the top or top surface of a body part

Inferior

Towards the bottom or bottom surface of a body part

Proximal

towards the point of attachment of an extremity

Distal

further away from the point of attachment of an extremity

Palmar

Towards the front of the hand/foot or the front surface of the hand/foot

Dorsum

towards the back of the hand/foot or the back surface of the hand/foot

Superficial

more external / towards the surface (work from inside out)

Deep

more internal / further beneath the surface

Functions of the skeleton

1 - Give structure, support, stability

2 - Protection of important organs

3 - Some bones contain red bone marrow which produces all comps. of blood - plasma

4 - Store minerals (phosphorus and calcium

5 - Movement occurs to skeletal muscles

Long bones

Long arm and leg bones

Short bones

Primarily wrist and ankle bones

Flat bones

Flat and thin; scapula, skull, ribs

Sesamoid bones

Free floating bones encased in tendons (patella)

Long bone: Epiphysis + articular cartilage

Ends of long bones, part which connects with articular cartilage; friction free movement, protective covering

Diaphysis

Shaft of long bones, may consist of medullary cavity and bone marrow

Periosteum

Outer surface of the entire bone, point of attachment for tendons and ligaments

Compact bone

Dense hard bone to withstand lateral forces, thick in shaft and thin at ends

Cancellous / spongey bone

Spaces between the matrix of bone - resists weight bearing forces. thick in epiphysis and minimal in diaphysis

Medullary cavity

Filled with yellow and red bone marrow, blood cell production occurs here

Epiphyseal plate

Growth plate where longitudinal growth occurs until the end of puberty

Ossification

The process of new bone formation, bones can grow longer and wider during puberty.

• Osteoblasts release gelatin substance inside of cartilage matrix, hardens and creates bone.

Re-modelling

Further changes in bone occur due to this process

• Osteoclasts break down old or damaged bone into its biochemical components

Simple fracture

No separation of bone “hairline fracture”

Compound fracture

Separate pieces are evident; “transverse fracture”

• bone can break through skin, extra damage to other tissues due to movement

Communited fracture

Shattered into multiple pieces

Smooth muscle

Found as walls of visceral organs; stomach, intestines, bladder, walls of arteries, etc.

• Involuntary, no striations, perform slow and substances contractions

Cardiac muscle

Only in the heart, striated, involuntary movements

Skeletal muscle

Attached to and covers bony skeleton

• longest muscle cell types, striated, voluntary movement, easily tired

EEICC

Extensibility - ability to be stretched

Elasticity - ability to return back to normal length

Irritability - ability to respond to stimulus

Contractibility - ability to actively shorten

Conductivity - ability to transmit nerve impulses

Agonist + antagonist

Muscle groups occur in pairs, working with and against each other.

• Agonist: Primary joint mover (i.e. biceps)

• Antagonist: Acts against the agonist to return the joint to original position

Origin, insertion, function

Origin: proximal attachment, muscle attaches to the areas closest to the axial skeleton

Insertion: distal attachment, muscle attaches to the area furthest from the axial skeleton

Function: action / motion; what the muscle does when activated in a certain position

Concentric contraction

Muscle fibres shorten while performing a movement

Eccentric

Muscle fibres lengthen while performing a movement

Isometric

Muscle fibres do not change in length, hold steady movement

Isotonic exercise

Controlled shortening and lengthening of the muscle (intervals)

Isometric exercise

No motion - muscle fibres maintain a constant length throughout a contraction

Isokinetic exercise

Use of machines to control speed of contractions (combination of isotonic and isometric training)

Sliding filament theory

1: brain sends a signal from motor cortex to decide to move extremity

2: signal travels through the spine and branches off to extremity

3: signal goes through motor nerve and makes its way to the axon terminal

4: acetylcholine is produced and released to receptors, impulse down sarcolemma

5: Calcium ions (Ca2+) stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum start to travel towards myofilaments

6: Calcium ions bind to troponin

7: Ions cause tropomyosin to unravel the binding sites on the actin

8: myosin heads move towards the binding sites from the cross bridges and attach

9: myosin heads use ATP to pull on the actin, causing shortening of the muscle fibres

10: process continues until brain stops sending signals or the muscles are incapable of continuing

11: Ions return back to sarcoplasmic reticulum

What is a joint?

Points of contact (articulations) between two connected bones. Hold bones together and allow flexibility for movement

6 types of articular joints

1: ball and socket (hip)

2: hinge (elbow)

3: saddle (thumbs)

4: gliding (ankle)

5: pivot (cervical spine)

6: ellipsoid (wrist)

Tendons

Composed of collagen, attach muscle to bone, vascular

Ligaments

Tough bands of white and fibrous tissue, attach bone to bone, avascular

Common sports injuries

• strains, pulls, tears

• tendinitis (inflammation)

• dislocations (bone displacement)

• separations (ligaments tear)

• cartilage (torn)

• shin splints (membrane of periosteum tears)

Proper treatment for injury

Pressure: tensor wrap

Ice: placed on affected area

Elevate: to reduce swelling

Restrict: tensors, slings, or crutches

Carbohydrates

glucose and glycogen

Glycogen

stored glucose found in muscles and liver

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

the energy “currency” for the entire body

• created in mitochondria and cytoplasm

• resynthesizes aerobically and anaerobically

Aerobic vs Anaerobic

Aerobic: uses oxygen, occur in mitochondria, breaks down glucose

Anaerobic: no oxygen, use chemicals and enzymes, occur in sarcoplasm, short lived energy

Lactic acid

Chemical produced during strenuous exercise (lack oxygen), causes burning feeling in muscles

Lactate threshold

The exercise intensity at which lactic acid begins to accumulate exponentially, occurs at ~4-5mmol

Myoglobin

Protein in muscles which releases oxygen during periods of high demand, to ensure muscles have enough oxygen

Pyruvate

A byproducts of glycolysis, creates more ATP in the presence of oxygen

Summary of energy systems

Types of muscle fibres

Type 1 (slow oxidative): generate energy slowly, fatigue resistant, aerobic system dependent

Type IIA (fast oxidative): intermediate fibres, high speed energy release, allow glycolytic capacity, can be transformed into type 1 fibres with endurance

Type IIB (fast glycolytic): store glycogen and high levels of enzymes, allow for quick contraction without need for oxygen, primary system is ATP-PC

Components of the nervous system

CNS: consists of brain and spinal cord

PNS: sensory and motor nerves —> somatic and autonomic —> sympathetic and parasympathetic

Autonomic nervous system

Involuntary movements, sympathetic sys; body’s reaction to stimulus. parasympathetic; returns body back to normal balance

Somatic nervous system

Voluntary movements, contains both afférent and efferent nerves, receives signals from outside world, action taken with motor response (reactions)

Proprioceptors

Specialized receptors located within tendons, muscles, and joints which provide information through the use of golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles

Paraplegia

Paralysis of both legs, mid thoracic-lumbar spinal injury

Quadriplegia

Paralysis of all 4 limbs, upper thoracic-cervical spinal injury

Major parts of the brain PART 1

Cerebrum: sensory + motor activites

• Parietal: incoming info, determines position of body parts, pain and pressure

• Frontal: problem solving, intellect, behaviour, personality, smell

• Occipital: vision centre

• Temporal: auditory and visual memories, speech and language

Major parts of the brain PART 2

Cerebellum: “Little brain”, coordinates movements balance and posture

Major parts of the brain PART 3

Brain stem: All basic life functions

Major parts of the brain PART 4

Limbic system: controls emotions (Inside out)

Major parts of the brain PART 5

Reticular activating system: network of neurons connecting the parts of the brain

5 parts of reflex arc

a) Pain receptor

b) afferent (sensory) neuron

c) interneuron

d) efferent (motor) neuron

3) effector organ

Golgi tendon organ

Where tendon meets muscle fibres, in series with muscle fibres, respond to changes/tension in muscle, one sensory neuron

Muscle spindles

In the centre of the muscle fibre, parallel to muscle fibres, respond to changes in muscle length, 2 sensory neurons

Types of tubes

Arteries: move blood away from the heart, oxygenated

Capillaries: responsible for gas + nutrient exchanges within tissues

Veins: return blood back to heart with one way valves

Types of pumps

Skeletal: muscle contractions pump blood back to heart with movement

Thoracic: changes in pressure due to breathing pushes blood from veins

Nervous: signals sent to veins, constriction allows for more blood to flow

Components of blood

Erythrocytes (rbc): made in bone marrow, carry O2 + CO2, transport nutrients and waste

Leukocytes (wbc): destroy foreign elements, critical in the function to the immune system

Platelets: regulate blood clotting

Hemoglobin: transports O2 from the lungs to the rest of the body

Frank-Starling Law

The heart’s ability to stretch and increase the force of contraction

How to increase O2 delivery

• Increase in cardiac output

• Redistribution of blood flow to different areas of the body (more = heart, muscles. less = kidney, digestive system)

Functions of cardiovascular system

• Delivers O2, fuel, nutrients to tissues

• Removal of CO2 and waste products from tissues

• Maintain body temperature

• Prevention of infection

ECG conduction

P - SA + AV nodes + internodal pathways. conduction spreads through atria (depolarize)

QRS - conduction through ventricles (depol), resets atria (repolarization)

T - reset ventricles (repol)

Functions of respiratory system

• Gas exchange between atmosphere and body cells

• Supplies oxygen to the body through respiration

• Exhalation gets rid of waste (CO2)

Internal respiration

Exchange of gases in the mitochondria during cellular respiration

External respiration

Exchange that occurs in the lung/capillary interface

VO2 max

Maximum amount of O2 that can be taken in and used for the metabolic production of ATP during exercise.

• Testing: perform progressively more difficult exercise to exhaustion

• good indicator of an athletes aerobic fitness

O2 deficit

When cells require more oxygen than is being consumed

• tends to occur in the early stages of exercise when there isn’t enough ATP created

• results in early athletic struggles when exercise demands are high

• trained athletes experience less oxygen deficit due to efficiency

Excess post-exercise O2 consumption (EPOC)

Additional O2 taken in after exercise to compensate for the exercise

• VO2 levels return to normal levels; ATP stores, phosphocreatine stores, convert lactic acid to pyruvate, removing excess heat (sweat)

Major physiological adaptations due to endurance training

Ability to ventilate: higher tidal volume and lung capacity

Respiratory muscles: increased endurance and strength of diaphragm and intercostals

Increase of capillaries and alveoli: capillaries around these new alveoli

Max VO2: increase efficiency of internal + external respiration, better use of O2

Macronutrients

Largest portion of food we eat and provide usable energy, important in body structure and function (cell membrane, DNA, etc.)

• Carbohydrates

• Fats

• Proteins

Micronutrients

Assist in biochemical reactions, tissue synthesis and energy systems

• Vitamins

• Minerals

Carbohydrates

Dominant source of energy, 4 cal of energy per carb

• Simple carbs: digested and absorbed quickly; sugar, honey, junk, processed foods

• Complex carbs: digested and absorbed more slowly; vits, mins, protein, fibre (bread, fruit, beans, pasta, veggies)

Proteins

Necessary for growth and repair body tissues (involved in almost all body processes)

• 10-15% of diet recommended

• 4 calories of energy per gram of protein

• proteins broken down into amino acids; 9 supplied by foods, 11 already in our bodies

• Complete proteins: foods containing all 20 amino acids (meat, cheese, eggs, quinoa, soy, milk)

• Incomplete proteins: limited amounts of amino acids (most vegetable proteins)

Fats (lipids)

Insulate and protect vital parts of the body, provide large source of concentrated energy for low intensity activities

• 9 cals of energy per gram

• Saturated fats: Meat, poultry, butter, lard, hard margarines (animal/processed foods)

  • tends to raise cholesterol + lipid levels in the blood (heart disease/blocked arteries)

• Unsaturated fats: Olive, soybean, corn, sunflower, safflower, sesame oils

  • carries cholesterol and fat out of the bloodstream

Calories

Kilocalorie (kcal) is 1000 calories; it measures the amount of energy that food will produce as it passes though the body