development and learning (learning edition)

Behavioral perspective

Examines how observable behaviors are learned and reinforced through interactions

associative learning

a process of learning in which an individual forms connections between events that occur together

habituation (non-associative learning)

occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus. Like the fire alarm going off at school.

classical conditioning

a learning method where we associate 2 stimuli, enabling us to anticipate events

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning needed.

unconditioned response (UR)

a natural and automatic reaction to stimulus that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning. Like response to putting a lemon in your mouth.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, evokes a conditioned response

conditioned response

a learned response that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented resulting from the association with an unconditioned stimulus.

acquisition

the initial learning of an association

extinction

the process in which the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest. does not erase the association but suppresses it temporarily.

stimulus discrimination

the ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond differently to them, learned through the conditioning process.

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus as a result of the conditioning process.

higher order conditioning

a process where a previously conditioned stimulus is used to create further associations with new neutral stimuli resulting in those stimuli also eliciting a conditioned response. Layers of association= HOC

counterconditioning

changing a learned response to something more preferred by pairing it with a different experience

taste aversion

a learned association between the taste of a particular food and feeling sick, often occurring after only one pairing

one trial conditioning

learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of 2 things.

biological preparedness

the innate tendency of organisms to quickly learn associations between certain stimuli and responses that are relevant to their survival, such as food and danger.

operant conditioning

a type of learning where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences, like reinforcement and punishment.

the law of effect

behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are more likely to repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

reinforcement “repeat”

any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.

primary reinforcers

things we naturally like, such as food and water

secondary reinforcers

things we learn to like because they’re connected to primary reinforcers or other things we like. Ex: money, grades in school, points, applause.

reinforcement discrimination

the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond appropriately based on the presence or absence of reinforcement

reinforcement generalization

the tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

positive reinforcement

presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future.

negative reinforcement

removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future. Like an alarm creating an irritating or unpleasant noise, until the seatbelt is fastened.

punishment “prevent”

any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future

positive punishment

adding an irritating stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of the behavior happening again in the future

negative punishment

removing a desirable stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again in the future

shaping

gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer and closer to the desired behavior, leading to the development to a complex behavior or skill.

instinctive drift

animals may go back to their natural instincts instead of learning new behaviors through training (operant conditioning)

superstitious behavior

accidental reinforcement of behaviors, leading to the belief that those behaviors are causing desired outcomes, when they are not

reinforcement schedules

patterns determining when and how often reinforcement is given for a behavior influencing the rate and persistence of that behavior

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs

partial reinforcement

reinforcing behavior only some of the time it occurs, leading to slower extinction but also less consistent responding.

Fixed interval “FI”

reinforcement id delivered after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement leading to a predictable pattern of behavior

variable interval “VI”

reinforcement is delivered after varying amounts of times has passed since the last reinforcement, leading to a steady but moderate rate of responding.

fixed ratio “FR”

reinforcement is delivered after fixed number of responses, leading to a high rate of responding with short pauses after each reinforcement

variable ratio “VR”

reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, leading to a high and steady rate of responding with minimal pauses.

scalloped pattern

a graphical pattern of behavior where responding starts slowly but rapidly increases as the time for reinforcement approaches.

learned helplessness

a belief that no one has control over their circumstances, learned through repeated exposure to uncontrollable events leading to feelings of passivity and lack of effort to change the situation

social learning theory

theory that emphasizes the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors, as well as the role of cognitive processes, in learning from others within social contexts

vicarious conditioning

learning by observing the consequences of others actions, without directly experiencing those consequences oneself.

insight learning

a sudden understanding of a problem or situation that leads to a solution without prior trial and error, often accompanied by a feeling of “aha” or realization

latent learning

learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or motivation, but its not demonstrated until there is a reason to do so.

cognitive maps

mental representations of spatial relationships or layouts, allowing individuals to navigate and understand their environment.