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Vasodilation
enlargement of vessel diameter (lowers blood pressure)
Vasoconstriction
narrowing of vessel diameter (increase blood pressure)
Baroreceptor reflex
Pressure sensors called baroreceptors monitor changes in arterial pressure.
Capillaries
Deliver blood close to nearly all body cells (gas exchange & salt exchange happen here)
Arteriosclerosis
Hardening of the arteries (happens because of high blood pressure)
Atherosclerosis
Cholesterol accumulates in arteries over time and builds up plaques in the arteries. Blood has too much difficulty to move in, might result in stroke or heart attack.
embolus
Clot that circulates in the bloodstream
Angioplasty
Angioplasty is a medical procedure used to treat blocked or narrowed blood vessels. It involves inserting a balloon-tipped catheter into the affected artery and inflating it to widen the vessel and improve blood flow. This helps restore average blood circulation and can relieve symptoms such as chest pain or shortness of breath.
Aneurysm
part of an artery weakens and balloons outward, caused by disease, inborn defect, or injury. If it bursts, blood loss can be serious or fatal
Heart Attack
Damage or death of heart muscle due to reduced blood flow to the region
Heart Failure
Heart is weakened and cannot pump enough blood to meet the body’s need
Bypass Surgery
Surgical procedure that creates an alternative route for blood flow, bypassing blocked arteries. Used to treat coronary artery disease and improve blood supply to the heart.
Arrhytmias
Irregular Heart Rhythm: some are abnormal, some are not.
Atrial Fibrillation
Irregular heart rhythm characterized by rapid and chaotic electrical signals in the atria. Increases risk of blood clots, stroke, and heart failure. Symptoms include palpitations, dizziness, and shortness of breath. Treatment options include medication, cardioversion, and catheter ablation.
Ventricular Fibrillation
Abnormal heart rhythm characterized by rapid, chaotic contractions of the ventricles. It can lead to cardiac arrest and is a medical emergency requiring immediate defibrillation.
Major Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Disease
Inherited predispositions
Elevated Blood Lipids
Hypertension
Obesity
Smoking
Lack of Exercise
Age 50+
Inflammation due to infections
High blood levels of C-reaction protein
Elevated Blood levels of homocysteine
Rheumatic Fever
Body produces antibodies that mistakenly attack heart valves
Endocarditis
Microbes attack heart valves directly
Lyme disease
complications include inflamed heart muscle
Myocarditis
Heart inflammation
Blood
a sticky fluid, fluid connective tissue consists of plasma, blood cells, and platelets
Blood Plasma
Fluid part of blood called plasma, made up of mostly water
P
Plasma Proteins
Determine blood’s fluid volume
Two-thirds of plasma proteins are albumin
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
White blood cells (leukocytes)
defend against foreign cells, also remove dead or worn-out cellsp
platelets
release substances that begin blood clotting
last only a week
millions circulate in the blood
Hemoglobin
Protein that carries oxygen
oxygen binds to the heme groups (contains iron) to create oxyhemoglobin
“Heme” is the molecule that binds to oxygen
oxyhemoglobin
Compound formed when oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, allowing for transportation of oxygen throughout the body.
AKA Oxygenated Hemoglobin
Factors influencing amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry
Amount of oxygen present
Temperature and acidity of tissues
Macrophages
remove dead cells from blood
Span of Red Blood Cells
About 120 days
Producers of Red/White Blood Cells
Stem Cells in Bone Marrow
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
Tallies number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in one liter of blood
Erythropoietin (EPO)
EPO stimulates stem cells to produce more red blood cells
Comes from the Kidneys which monitor the blood count
Blood Types Difference
Differences come from variations in surface markers on red blood cells
The surface markers are sugars or carbohydrates
Markers that are NOT part of a person’s body are antigens
Two blood groups
Rh group (protein)
ABO group (sugar)
ABO Blood typing
chemical analysis to determine blood type
Blood Type AB
Has both A and B markers
type O
No marker, UNIVERSAL DONOR
Rh factor
another type of surface marker
Rh typing
determines the presence or absence of the Rh factor
Rh positive (Rh+)
Rh negative (Rh-)
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
If Rh- a female gets pregnant by an Rh+ male, the fetus may be Rh+; Rh antibodies will enter the new fetus’ bloodstream if another pregnancy occurs.
Hemostasis
means: “stopping bleeding”
prevents blood loss
can seal tears or punctures in relatively small blood vessels
Process of Blood Clotting
When a blood vessel is ruptured —> Vessel wall contracts in a spasm —> Constricts the blood vessel for up to 30 minutes —> Platelets arrive and clump together —→ Creating a temporary plug —> Serotonin is released to prolong the spasm and attract more platelets —> Blood coagulates into a gel and form a clot.
Other Means of Clot Formation
Intrinsic clotting mechanismF
Factor X
Part of Intrinsic Clotting Mechanism, protein in blood plasma is activated and triggers reactions that produce thrombin.
Thrombin
Enzyme that acts on fibrinogen, causes the fibers to stick together into a net that entangles lbood cells and platelets
Extrinsic Clotting Mechanism
Injury to Blood Vessel —> Wall of Vessel Contracts —> Platelets stick to collagen fibers of damaged vessel —> More permanent clot florms
Embolism
Occurs in the heart, lungs, or brain if the clot shuts down the organ’s blood supply.
Stroke
may involve an embolus, when blood flow is blocked to some part of the brain and affected area dies
may be mild or more damaging
Wound Healing
First Step: Formation of Blood Clot
Second Step: Phagocytes clean up debris
Third Step: Scab begins to form
Fourth Step: Minimize blood less/Minimize chance of infection
Anemia
Red blood cell disorder, cells not delivering enough oxygen, ex: iron-deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, and aplastic anemia (cancer)
Malaria
Significant cause of hemolytic anemia
Caused by protozoan transmitted by mosquitoes
Infectious mononucleosis
Caused by Epstein-Barr virus
Triggers overproduction of lymphocytes
HIV
Attacks white blood cells, Causes AIDS
Leukemias
Often called blood cancers, Results from cancer of the bone marrow
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Prevents hemoglobin from binding oxygen
Septicemia
bacteria releases toxins that poison the blood [example staph A (Staphylococcus aureus)]
Toxemia
Caused by metabolic poisons in the body.
Three lines of defense protect the body
physical barriers
innate immunity
adaptive immunity
Antigen
foreign substance that triggers body’s immune response
example: virus, toxins, and cancer cells
physical barriers
intact skin,
linings of body cavities and tubes
chemical barriers to infection
NOT considered part of immune system
innate immunity
Preset responses to infections present from birth and carried out by white blood cells and blood proteins. The responses themselves are only general and not specific to type of antigen.
adaptive immunity
Changes over lifetime, but the response is tailored to a particular attacker. It takes about 7-10 to develop the response, unlike innate which is immediate.
Neutrophils
phagocytes that follows chemical trails to infected, inflamed or damaged tissue
form a net that traps nearby invaders
blow apart at contact with complement and other signaling molecules
Eosinophils
White blood cell that targets parasites too big for phagocytes
Basophils
Circulating white blood cells that targets parasites too big for phagocytosis
Macrophage
phagocytic white blood cell in tissue fluid
Dendritic cells
alert the immune system
B cells and T cells
Recognize specific antigens
The Lymphatic System
Picks up fluid lost from capillaries and return it to the bloodstream, other key task is defense
Lymph
tissue fluid that has moved into lymph vessels
Lymph Vascular System
Functions in drainage, delivery, and disposal; also picks up fats absorbed from small intestine and delivers them to bloodstream
Lymph Nodes
located at intervals along lymph vessels
spleen
filters blood, also serves as a holding station for lymphocytes
Thymus
location where T cells multiply and become specialized
Barriers to Infection
1) Skin provides a strong defense against external bacteria
2) Digestive tract lining includes “friendly” bacteria that help protect
3) Vaginal lining includes Lactobacillus (helps maintain low pH unfriendly to most bacteria and fungi)
Lysozyme and other chemicals
present in tears, saliva, and gastric fluid
protect the body
Urine’s low pH and flushing action
Protects the Urinary tract against infection
Mild diarrhea
Can rid lower GI tract of pathogens
Complement System
Complement raises a flag and says there is trouble, recruits neutrophils to go take care of the foreign substance. Complement protein is what raises the flag for foreign substances.
Inflammation
fast, general response to tissue damage or infection
mast cells and basophils respond to an antigen or complement proteins by releasing HISTAMINES
Histamines
causes arterioles to dilate, increasing blood flow
makes capillaries leak, causing swelling.
Fever
Body temperatures rises above normal
develops when macrophages release interleukins
Interleukins
stimulates brain to release prostaglandins
Functions of Adaptive Immunity
1) Recognition of self versus non-self
2) Specificity (make receptors for only one kind of antigen)
3) Diversity
4) Memory (some B and T cells first formed held in reserve for future needs)
Lymphocytes (B Cells)
Specialized for different roles:
Effector cells
Memory cells
Plasma cells (Makes antibodies)
Specialized white blood cells that play a crucial role in the immune response by producing antibodies to target and eliminate specific pathogens.
B cells
T Cells
Specialized white blood cells that play a crucial role in the immune system by recognizing and destroying infected or abnormal cells in the body.
MHC
Markers present on cells recognized as “self”
Antigen-presenting cell
Engulfs an antigen and cuts into pieces using enzyme
Antibodies
mark invaders, other mechanisms prevent them from harming body cells
Five classes of antibodies
Collectively called immunoglobulins (lgs)
lgM, lgD, lgG, lgA, and lgE
Immunoglobulin G
The primary antibody in blood activates complement, neutralizes toxins, protects the fetus, and is secreted in early milk
Natural Killer (NK) cells
present in tissues and organs of the lymphatic system
can detect and kill virus-infected body cells and some cancers
Cytotoxic T Cells
release various killer substances to attack target cells
Vaccination
stimulates immunity, contains an antigen,
First injection confers active immunity
later booster shot causes more effector cells and memory cells to form, provides long-lasting immunity
Antibodies (2)
can be “borrowed” by another person to provide temporary ability to fight pathogens
Immunotherapies
manipulating the body’s immune mechanism
Immunotoxins
monoclonal antibodies bound to toxins, bind to an antigen on a cancer cell
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