POLS 1101 Test 1

authority

the right to make and implement a decision

bargaining

a form of negotiation in which two or more parties who disagree propose exchanges and concessions to find a course of acceptable collective action

cabinet

the formal group of presidential advisers who head the major departments and agencies of the federal government
-chosen by the president and approved by the Senate

coalition

an alliance of unlike-minded individuals or groups to achieve some common purpose, such as lobbying, legislating, or campaigning for the election of public officials

collective action

an action taken by a group of like-minded individuals to achieve a common goal

collective goods

goods that are collectively produced and freely available for anyone's consumption

compromise

settlement in which each side concedes some of its preferences in order to secure others

conformity costs

the difference between what a person ideally would prefer and what the group with which that person makes collective decisions actually does
-individuals pay these whenever collective decisions produce policy outcomes that do not best serve their interests

constitution

a document outlining the formal rules and institutions of government and the limits placed on its powers

coordination

the act of organizing a group to achieve a common goal
-remains a prerequisite for effective collective action even after the disincentives to individual participation (prisoner's dilemma) have been solved

direct democracy

a system of government in which citizens make policy decisions by voting on legislation themselves rather than by delegating that authority to their representatives

focal point

focus identified by participants when coordinating their energies to achieve a common purpose

free-rider problem

a situation in which individuals can receive the benefits from a collective activity whether or not they helped to pay for it, leaving them with no incentive to contribute

government

the institutions and procedures through which people are ruled

initiative

an approach to direct democracy in which a proposal is placed on an election ballot when the requisite number of registered voters have signed petitions

institutional design

the construction of political institutions and processes for managing conflicts and reaching collective agreements between competing interests

institution

an organization that manages potential conflicts between political rivals, helps them to find mutually acceptable solutions, and makes and enforces the society's collective agreements

office

subdivision of some government departments that confers on its occupants specific authority and responsibilities

parliamentary government

a form of government in which the chief executive is chosen by the majority party or by a coalition of parties in the legislature

politicians

a small group of professionals tasked by society with discovering and coordinating mutually attractive collective decisions

politics

the process through which individuals and groups reach agreement on a course of common, or collective, action, even as they disagree on the intended goals of that action

power

an officeholder's actual influence with other officeholders and, as a consequence, over the government's actions

preferences

individuals' choices, reflecting economic situation, religious values, ethnic identity, or other valued interests

prisoner's dilemma

a situation in which two or more actors cannot agree to cooperate for fear that the other will find its interest best served by reneging on an agreement

private goods

benefits and services over which the owner has full control of their use

privatize

to prevent a common resource from being overexploited by tying the benefit of its consumption to its cost

public goods

goods that are collectively produced and freely available for anyone's consumption

referendum

an approach to direct democracy in which a state legislature proposes a change to the state's laws or constitution that all the voters subsequently vote on

regulation

setting up rules limiting access to a common resource and monitoring and penalizing those who violate them

representative government

a political system in which citizens select government officials who, acting as their agents, deliberate and commit the citizenry to a course of collective action

republic

a form of democracy in which power is vested in elected representatives

separation of powers

the distribution of government powers among several political institutions (i.e. Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court)

tragedy of the commons

a situation in which group members can overexploit a common resource, causing its destruction

transaction costs

the costs of doing political business reflected in the time and effort required to compare preferences and negotiate compromises in making collective decisions

tyranny

a form of government in which the ruling power exploits its authority and permits little popular control

1) Why can't we solve our disputes through simple bargaining all the time?
2) What factors undermine bargaining in different settings?
3) What can people or governments do to help solve disputes despite these factors?

1. Sometimes not everyone can get exactly what they want and are required to compromise instead
2. When neither party is satisfied and there is no direct solution to an issue
3. The parties can compromise and concede certain demands or agree on a different, mutually beneficial idea

1) What sorts of institutions are commonly used to manage conflicts in societies?
2) What are some examples of where these institutions have failed?

1. The government (as a whole), but more specifically, the justice system and institutions like the UN
2. Sometimes defendants are wrongly accused or get off free, or different nations refuse to compromise and make matters worse (i.e. tariffs between China and US)

In what ways are challenges to today's government a consequence of collective action problems?

The government often deals with both coordination and the prisoner's dilemma issues which combat one another to prevent issues from being fixed. It is hard for multiple people to agree to the same demands, making it harder for the government to solve issues.

In what ways is the parliamentary system of representative government designed to work with fewer transaction costs than the US presidential system?

The parliamentary system requires fewer transaction costs because it requires fewer representatives. The US presidential system requires more representatives and therefore, more decisions leading to more transaction costs.

What are some examples of public and private goods?

Public goods: the highway system, infrastructure, public education, public parks, etc.
Private goods: homes, your car, a TV you buy

What does it mean for a government to be a republic?

It consists of elected representatives who make and pass laws that govern us rather than a true democracy where citizens vote on all laws to be passed.

agency loss

the discrepancy between what citizens ideally would like their agents to do and how the agents actually behave

agenda control

the capacity to set the choices available to others

agent

someone who makes and implements decisions on behalf of someone else

antifederalists

a loosely organized group that opposed ratification of the Constitution, which the group believed would jeopardize individual freedom and states' rights
-their actions led to the Bill of Rights after the ratification of the Constitution

Articles of Confederation

the compact among the thirteen original states that formed the basis of the first national government of the US from 1777-1789, when it was supplanted by the Constitution

bicameral legislature

a legislature composed of two houses or chambers (i.e. House and Senate and every US state legislature)

Bill of Rights

the first ten amendments to the US Constitution

checks and balances

a constitutional mechanism giving each branch some oversight and control of the other branches (i.e. presidential veto, Senate approval of presidential appointments, and judicial review of presidential and congressional actions)

command

the authority of one actor to dictate the actions of another

commerce clause

the clause in Article I, Section VIII, of the Constitution that gives Congress the authority to regulate commerce with other nations and among the states

confederation

a political system in which states or regional governments retain ultimate authority except for those powers they expressly delegate to a central government

delegation

the act of one person or body authorizing another person or body to perform an action on its behalf (i.e. Congress often delegates authority to the president or administrative agencies to decide the details of policy)

Declaration of Independence

the document drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, declaring the independence of the thirteen colonies from Great Britain

electoral college

a body of electors in each state, chosen by voters, who formally elect the president and vice president of the US; an absolute majority of the total electoral vote is required to elect a president and vice president

faction

a group of people sharing common interests who are opposed to other groups with competing interests

fast-track authority

impermanent power granted by Congress to the president to negotiate international trade agreements

federalists

led by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, supported ratification of the Consititution in 1787 and 1788

Great Compromise

the agreement between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention that decided the selection and composition of Congress: the lower chamber (House of Representatives) be chosen by popular vote and the upper chamber (the Senate) be selected by the stage legislatures; House=population; Senate=equal representation

home rule

power given by a state to a locality to enact legislation and manage its own affairs locally
-also applied to Britain's administration of the American colonies

judicial review

the authority of a court to declare legislative and executive acts unconstitutional and therefore invalid

logroll

the result of legislative vote trading (i.e. legislators representing urban districts may vote for an agricultural bill provided that legislators from rural districts vote for a mass transit bill)

majority rule

the principle that decisions should reflect the preferences of more than half of those voting

nationalists

constitutional reformers led by Madison and Hamilton who sought to replace the AoC; they favored a strong national legislature elected directly by the citizenry rather than the states and a national government that could veto any state laws it deemed unfit

necessary and proper clause

the last clause of Article I, Section VIII, that grants Congress the authority to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" and to execute those laws

New Jersey Plan

New Jersey delegate William Paterson's proposal for reforming the AoC; introduced at the Constitutional Convention, this plan was favored by delegates who supported states' rights

pluralism

a theory describing a political system in which all significant social interests freely compete with one another for influence over the government's policy decisions

plurality

rule in electing members of Congress by which the candidate who receives the most votes wins, regardless of whether the plurality reaches a majority

popular sovereignty

citizens' delegation of authority to their agents in government, with the ability to rescind that authority

principal

someone who possesses decision-making authority; may delegate their authority to agents, who then exercise it on behalf of the principals

Shays' Rebellion

uprising of 1786 led by Daniel Shays, a former captain in the Continental Army and a bankrupt Massachusetts farmer, to protest the state's high taxes and aggressive debt collection policies; this demonstrated the inability to keep the peace and stimulated interest in strengthening the national government, leading to the Philadelphia convention and framed the Constitution

simple majority

a majority of 50 percent plus 1 (51%)

states' rights

safeguards against a too-powerful national government that were favored by one group of delegates to the Constitutional Convention; advocates supported retaining those features of the AoC that guarded state prerogatives, such as state participation in the selection of national offficeholders and equal representation for each state regardless of population

supremacy clause

a clause in Article VI that declares national laws are the "supreme" law of the land and therefore take precedence over any laws adopted by states or localities

supermajority

a majority larger than a simple 51 percent majority, which is required for extraordinary legislative actions such as amending the Constitution or certain congressional procedures (i.e. in the Senate, 60 votes are required to stop a filibuster)

"take care" clause

the provision in Article II, Section III instructing the president to "take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed!"

veto

the formal power of the president to reject bills passed by both houses of Congress; can be overriden by a two-thirds vote in each house

Virginia Plan

constitutional blueprint drafted by Madison that sought to reform the AoC; the plan proposed a tripartite national government, but unlike the subsequent Constitution, it provided for a popularly elected legislature that would dominate national policymaking

voting rules

rules prescribing who votes and the minimum number of votes required to accept a proposal or elect a candidate

1) What is a political ideology?
2) Are there any ideologies that are inherently incompatible with the constitutional system of the US?

1. A system of beliefs of what the government should or should not do, on things such as economic policies or social issues (i.e. Conservative or Liberal)
2. Extreme fascism/monarchy or religious theocracy are incompatible with the 1st Amendment and the republican government described in the Constitution

1) What steps were taken to construct a national government before the Articles of Confederation?
2) What resulted from these steps?
3) How were decisions made under the Articles?

1. The Second Continental Congress drafted and signed the DoI to begin setting up a new government, but there was no formal constitution or governing document until the AoC
2. States were allowed to veto any federal action on policies like taxes. States had more power than the federal government and this caused free-riding.
3. Decisions were made by unanimous agreement.

1) What sorts of decisions were not made by the confederation?
2) How did this system affect the war effort?
3) How did it affect the conduct of the national and state governments once the war was over?

1. It did not account for trade, intrastate relations, or taxes. They gave too much power to individual states.
2. The federal government had no power to tax states to fund a war effort.
3. The states couldn't agree and the country fell into vast disagreement. The war was the only unifying thing in the country.

Why is the Electoral College so complicated?

It is in place to prevent tyranny. It prevents mass uniformed sways in public opinion from influencing the electorate. Candidates cannot ignore rural parts of America an works for the diversity.

How did the Framers balance the powers and independence of the executive and legislative branches?

The legislative branch makes laws and can impeach the president if necessary and the executive signs the legislation into law or can veto it..

Discuss how the coordination and transaction costs for states changed when the national government moved from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution.

The Constitution provides principals and agents who delegate power in order to reduce transaction costs of decisions. The government has become more coordinated.

What are principals and agents? When in your life have you been one or the other?

Principals: someone who possesses decision-making authority; they can delegate their authority to agents, who exercise it on their behalf
Agents: someone who makes and implements decisions on behalf of someone else

When you are hired for a job and are given a job to oversee, the principal (company) is delegating power to you (the agent) to minimize their transaction cost and effort.

What mechanisms for constitutional amendment were included in the Constitution? Why were multiple methods included?

In order to amend the Constitution, either 2/3 of both Houses of Congress have to vote on an amendment OR 2/3 of all state legislatures have to vote to call on a national convention to propose a new amendment.

Explain how 'limited government' in the US constitutional system works.

It is the barriers in the Constitution to prevent tyranny. This includes the system of checks and balances and that no one is above the law.

In what ways did slavery influence the creation of elected branches of government in the US?

The issue of slavery between the northern and southern states led to the implementation of the bicameral system. The disagreement based on population created the idea of equal representation in the Senate and proportional representation in the HoR.

What governing institution does Article I create? Article II? Article III?

Article I: created Congress
Article II: created the executive branch
Article III: created the judicial branch

Explain the process through which the U.S. Constitution can be amended.

Through a 2/3 majority of Congress OR 2/3 majority of state legislature calling for a national convention.

block grant

a broad grant of money given by the federal government to a state government; the grant specifies the general area, like health or education services but leaves it to the state to determine the specific allocations

Common Core

a national set of education standards in mathematics and English language arts/literacy that outline what students should know and be able to do at the end of each grade (K-12)

cutthroat competition

competition among states that involves adopting policies that each state would prefer to avoid (i.e. states engage in this when they underbid one another on tax breaks to attract businesses relocating their facilities)

dual federalism

a system of government in which the federal government and state government each have mutually exclusive spheres of action

elastic clause

allows Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers"

enumerated powers

the explicit powers given to Congress by the Constitution in Article I, Section VIII; includes the power of taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and provision for the national defense

externality

public goods or bads generated as by-products of private activity (i.e. air pollution is an externality (public bad) because it is the by-product of the private activity of driving a car)

federalism

a system of government in which power is divided between a central government and several regional governments

grants-in-aid

funds given by Congress to state or local governments for a specific purpose