Unit 3B AP Psychology

Behavioral perspective

a theory suggesting that behavior is learned and is shaped by observable, environmental factors

Classical conditioning

a learning process that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behavior (e.g., salivation)

Association

when a subject is conditioned to connect a stimuli with another stimuli, and this results in a specific behavior

Acquisition

the period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response

Associative learning

learning that two things occur together (e.g., a dog learns that it will get a treat when it obeys a command)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response

Unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

a neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response

Conditioned response (CR)

the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

Extinction

the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing

Spontaneous recovery

when a learned behavior recovers from extinction after a rest period

Stimulus discrimination

when a subject demonstrates the conditioned response only to the conditioned stimulus and not to stimuli that are similar to the CS

Stimulus generalization

when a subject demonstrates a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus

Higher-order conditioning

when a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a new unconditioned stimulus (e.g., an animal learns that a tone predicts food could then be taught that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone)

Counterconditioning

a behavior modification technique in which a stimulus that creates a negative response is paired with something known to create a positive response

Taste aversion

the avoidance of a certain food following a period of illness after consuming the food

One-trial conditioning

if a condition is powerful or extreme, something can be learned even if the individual is only exposed to the condition once (taste aversion is a common example of this)

Biological preparedness

the natural tendency of animals to learn certain associations (e.g., nausea, fear) with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

One-trial learning

when conditioning occurs after a single experience involving an intense stimulus (e.g., fear, pain, sickness)

Habituation

the diminished effectiveness of a stimulus in causing a response following repeated exposure to the stimulus

Social learning theory

suggests that social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the behavior of others

Vicarious conditioning

learning through observing other people's responses to a stimulus (as opposed to personally experiencing the stimulus)

Modeling

the process through which children learn behaviors, skills, emotions, and ways of thinking by observing rather than through direct experience

Insight learning

a form of problem solving in which there is a sudden realization of a solution

Latent learning

learning that occurs (often subconsciously) but is not used until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Cognitive maps

a mental picture of the layout of the physical environment (making it easier to learn and recall things like directions and navigation)

Operant conditioning

a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior

Reinforcement

an event or stimulus that strengthens the behavior it follows

Punishment

an event or stimulus that decreases the behavior it follows

Secondary reinforcer

a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer, such as giving a dog a treat (primary reinforcer) and also telling him "good boy" (secondary reinforcer)

Reinforcement discrimination

reinforcing a behavior in the presence of one stimulus but not others

Reinforcement generalization

when a behavior that has been reinforced in a specific context is also exhibited in similar contexts

Shaping

reinforcement of successive steps that lead to a final desired behavior

Instinctive drift

the tendency of some trained animals to revert back to instinctual behaviors

Law of Effect

Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated

Superstitious behavior

an irrational behavior based on a false belief that a specific action can cause a particular outcome

Learned helplessness

the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

Positive reinforcement

a desirable or pleasant stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely the behavior will reoccur

Negative reinforcement

a stimulus that, when removed after a behavior, strengthens the behavior

Reinforcement schedules

rules that control when and how often reinforcement is given during operant conditioning

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs

Partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time (results in slower acquisition but also greater resistance to extinction)

Fixed interval

reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed

Variable interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Fixed ratio

reinforces a response only after a specific number of responses

Variable ratio

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Scalloped graph

the pattern that appears on a cumulative response graph of a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule (shows that the subject only begins making a response as the time for the available reinforcements draws near)