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What is monism?
the view that the "mind" is the of the physical brain and thus, part of the physical brain
What is dualism?
the view that the mind is a metaphysical entity, distinct from our physical form
What is consciousness?
a concept framed by the mind-body problem
What is wakefulness?
Either conscious or unconscious
What is self-awareness?
the ability to describe one's own internal mental state
What is free-will?
the notion that you are the author of your own actions
What is split brains?
Cut a certain pathway (sever two parts of the brain - Restricts seizure to one hemisphere
What is unilateral neglect?
Part of their reality is erased on one side
What is generalization?
identifying similar behaviors and understanding them with respect to their "pro-survival" utility
What is reduction?
"reducing" behaviors to the neurobiological mechanisms subserving the behavior mechanisms subserving behavior
Who authored a theory/model of natural selection giving rise to evolution?
Charles Darwin
What is Natural Selection?
Survival of the fittest - the best genes suited to the environment they are in
What is speciation?
recognizing species from a cohort perspective
Who discovered plasticity and was Charles Darwin's competitor?
Jean Baptiste Lemark
What does the Darwinism model suggest about genes?
genes are inherited
What is phrenology?
complete nonsense; the antiquated discipline of partitioning the brain into areas that control certain behaviors
What is a Molecular/Histochemical approach?
Studying tissue - tissues of the nervous system and the nerve cells; understanding of neurochemistry, molecular neuroscience and protomics; study or organ tissue
What is a Structural/Functional approach?
Includes neuroimaging studies meant to determine the structure and function of specific brain regions (primarily in humans); how it functions collectively/form and function
What is a behavioral approach?
Techniques designed to study and manipulate behavior; may occur in conjunction with other techniques; attention, memory
What is an ablation?
the earliest neuroscience techniques relies on damage induced either naturally or experimentally to determine the role of certain brain areas in behavior
modern day ablation can be reversible or irreversible and may include chemical, radio or electrical lesions
What is stereotaxic surgery?
is a surgical stand with a probe that can move in three dimensions used for neurosurgery
What are microscopy techniques?
used to visual nerve cells
What are tracer studies?
Allows you to inject a molecule into an area of the brain and then it is carried to a receptor’ ;see neural pathway
tracing efferent neurons; anterograde labeling methods
inject a chemical into the neuron that moves forward, down the axon to the end of the neuron
tracing afferent neurons; we use retrograde labeling methods
inject a chemical into neuron that moves backwards, away from the terminal button, back to the cell body
What labeling methods do you use for tracing efferent neurons?
anterograde labeling methods
What labeling methods do you use for tracing afferent neurons?
retrograde labeling methods
What is autoradiography?
Used to radio label certain proteins in the brain to monitor their expression
What are two techniques used for imaging the human brain?
Structural and Functional Techniques
What are the structural techniques of imaging the human brain?
-Computerized Tomography (CT)
-Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
-Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
What are the functional techniques of imaging the human brain?
-Single Unit Recordings
-Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
-Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
-Electroencephelograms (EEG) or Event-Related Potentials (ERP)
What do CT scans do?
Good for looking for a tumor or brain but limited in what you can see for research
areas grey are grey matter
areas white are white matter (myelinated)
black is empty space (typically fluid-containing ventricles)
What does diffusion tensor imaging do?
Allows you to reconstruct fiber pathways by measuring fluid changes within the brain (via diffusion)
What does postrion emission tomography do?
(PET scan )
Scale depicts regional level of activity (red is high,activity blue/purple is low)
What does an FMRI do?
Uses Blood- Oxygenation-Level-Dependent (BOLD) signal to determine regions of activity
typically, red denotes heightened glucose metabolism in that area
good for spatial viewing
What does EEG or ERP do?
Traces show neural activity after exposure to certain stimuli or during certain mental states using electrodes that each record a small sub population of neurons
What does single/multiple unit recordings do?
Allows for surface recordings without the skull buffering
can record from a single neuron or multiple neurons
recordings can be transfuced to produce movement of a mechanical arm (brain machine interfaces- BMIs)
cons
highly invasive
bmi technology is expensive
can have poor spatial resolution
What does a brain machine interface do? (BMI)
A machine that directly interacts with the brain for the purpose of controlling that machine; electrode arrays placed on certain areas of the cortex allow for control of robotic limbs or manipulation of a computer
several studies conducted with animals and humans
What does autopsy research do?
Brains are typically sliced to identify structural abnormalities
What controls excitatory channels?
Channel Rhodopsin; responsive to blue light
What controls inhibitory channels?
Halphrodopsin- responsive to yellow light
What is the soma of a neuron?
the cell body, containing the nucleus and other cellular machinery
What are the dendrites of a neuron?
branches that serve as the primary input to the neuron
What is the axon of a neuron?
the cable-like structure through which action potentials (impules) are conducted
responsible for intracellular communication
may be myelinated for faster (insulated) impulse conduction
composed of microtubule-based (thick protein) cytoskeleton
serves two roles
conduction of action potentials
axoplasmic transport of cellular materials (anterograde or retrograde)
What are terminal buttons of a neuron?
portions of the neuron containing neurotransmitter release machinery necessary for communication (axon ending)
What is the synapse of a neuron?
the space in which two neurons communicate via chemical/electrical signals (extracellular space)- synaptic transmission
What is a bipolar neuron (interneuron)?
a neuron that relays a signal from one neuron to another
What is a unipolar neuron?
A neuron common in sensory systems, detects stimuli, and relays messages to the CNS
What are multipolar neurons?
Commonly motor neurons and are responsible for executing movment
What are pyramidal neurons?
Neurons only found in the CNS, contain dendritic spines, and are found in areas involved in learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity
What is the cell membrane?
the lipid bilayer protecting the cell from the external environment
What is cytosol?
water-based fluid that fills the cell
What is the nucleus?
contains genetic information (chromosomes containing genes) site of DNA replication and DNA→mRNA transcription
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
site of mRNA --> protein translation (at the ribosomes) and is involved in protein folding (tertiary structure)
What does the mitochondria do?
extracts nutrients from the environment to produce ATP (cellular energy)
What does the Golgi-apparatus do?
packages cellular products and waste; usually neurotransmitters, enzymes, lysosomes
What is the myelin sheath of a neuron?
Insulated portions of the axon to increase conduction efficacy
What are the unmyleinated portions of an axon
the nodes of ranvier- at equal intervals
What do Oligodendrocyctes do?
myleinate CNS neurons
What do Schwann cells do
myleinate PNS neurons; also helps neurons repair themselves (usually doesn’t happen in the CNS due to production of scar tissue) ; role in neurodevelopment and axiogenesis.
How do neurotransmitters leave to neuron?
Via exocytosis from terminal portion of axon called terminal buttons
What are synaptic vessicles?
Little parcels containing fixed about of neurotransmitter; contain neurotransmitters- leave via exocytosis
What are Glial Cells function?
To support neurons - "nerve glue"; support roles
What are the different types of Glial Cells?
1. Microglia
2. Astrocytes
3. Oligodendrocytes
4. Schwann Cells
What do microglia do?
provides an immune response, cell maintenance, spatial buffering, and may even release neurotransmitters! (Basically immune cells)
What do astrocytes?
star-shaped cells that wrap around neurons and supply them with nutrients (usually lactate for ATP synthesis); also immue function and phagocytosis
What is the blood-brain-barrier?
Selectively permeable barrier occurring between CNS blood vessels and neurons
large ptoteins must be actively transported through the membrane or they do not enter the brain
other molecules (glucose, waste, etc.) are moved in and out via active transport (atp-dependent transport)
Where is the blood-brain-barrier weakest?
the area postrema (near the brainstem) as it detects the presence of toxins in the blood and induces vomiting response
What increases the probability of an action potential?
excitation; activation
What decreases the probability of an action potential?
Inhibition; deactivation
What are examples of excitatory drugs?
caffine, molly, cocaine
What are examples of inhibitory drugs?
THC (cannabis), antihistamines (nyquil), alcohol, opioids
What is an action potential?
An electrochemical impulse that "flows" down the axon, just as electricity flows through a wire
measured in vitro with correct type of neuron
What is the resting potential of most neurons?
-70mV
What is the potential outside of the cell
+70mV
What is inside a cell?
Potassium (K+) and Amino Acid Proteins (A-)
What is outside a cell?
Sodium (Na+) and Chloride (Cl-)
Who first studied the chemical properties of the action potential?
Hodgkin and Huxley in the mid 20th century
used whole cell recording methods to record changes in membrane potential over time
What is hyperpolarization?
the cells become more negative relevant to the outside environment (moving farther from zero - inhibitory)
What is depolarization?
The cell becomes more positive relative to the outside environment (moving closer to zero- excitatory)
What is diffusion?
a movement of molecules down a concentration gradient; move until both sides are balanced
What is electrostatic pressure?
ions (charged particles) move away from similarly charged areas for example positive away from positive charged environments
What is threshold?
the minimum amount of voltage change needed to start the biochemical process of the action potential (-55)
What happens if an input is excitatory?
the postsynaptic (receiving) cell will fire an action potential once it reaches threshold
What two forces allow the action potential to take place?
Diffusion and Electrostatic pressure
What is the goal of an action potential?
To stimulate a neurons in such a way that now it is able to communicate with another neuron
What is in extracellular fluid?
Rich with Cl- and Na+ ions and a low concentration of K+ ions
What is in intracellular fluid?
Rick in K+ ions with negatively charged molecules; a low concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions
net difference allows for cells to be negatively charged at rest
What mechanisms are responsible for keeping the concentration of Na+ higher in extracellular fluid?
The semi-permeable axonal membrane- Na+ can only enter through open pore ion channel
the sodium potassium pump- uses atp to actively remove Na+ from the intracellular environment and bring in K+ in a 3:2 ratio
When do voltage-gates ion channels open?
once threshold excitation is reached
What pushes the membrane potential closer to zero
An increase in Na+ conductance
What happens at peak response
Na+channels become refractory (they close)
What is the all-or-none law?
Action potentials either occur or they do not occur and frequency of action potentials can change, but the amplitude does not; don’t change in magnitude
What is the rate law?
This can happens at different rates: Rate of firing conveys the signal
-Low rate firing = weaker signal
-High rate firing = stronger signal
Where does communication between neurons occur?
at the synapse (synaptic transmission)
What can postsynaptic potentials be?
EPSPs or IPSPs (excitatory or inhibitory)
What does Presynaptic activity produce?
Presynaptic (output neuron) produces postsynaptic (input neuron) activity
What do presynaptic cells have?
Contains all of the materials necessary to transmit a chemical signal (Mitochondria and Synaptic Vesicle)
What do post-synaptic cells have?
Proteins embedded in the membrane that make the neuron responsive to chemical signals to chemical signals
AND
Ligands bind to these receptors at their binding sites
Where are chemicals involved in transmission stored?
synaptic vesicles via transport proteins
What is the process of transmitters leaving the cell known as?
exocytosis
What helps in the releasing of chemical contents of the cell?
the vesicle must fuse with the presynaptic membrane at the release zone and scaffolding proteins aid in this process