Catabolism
requires energy to break down larger molecules
anabolism
requires energy to grow and build larger molecules
Carbohydrates
Starches and sugars that are broken down to glucose to provide energy.
Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Proteins
Nutrients the body uses to build and maintain its cells and tissues
Vitamins
Compounds found in food that help regulate many body processes
Minerals
Elements found in food that are used by the body
mechanical digestion
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
chemical digestion
Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use
Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things
4 stages of digestion
ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
hydrolisis
the process that carries out the chemical breakdown of large macromolecules for absorption
Carbohydrase (amylase)
Converts carbohydrates (starch) into simple sugars (maltose)
Lipase
breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
protease
breaks down proteins into amino acids
digestive tracts organs
oral cavity, esophagous, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
accesory organs
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
rugae of stomach
series of ridges produced by the folding of the wall of the stomach Function:allow the stomach to expand when needed
Chyme
liquified bolus
bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva
duodenum
receives chyme from stomach, responsible for chemical digestion
jejunum
main site of absorption, breaks down remaining protein and carbs
ileum
push undigested food into large intestine
segmentation movements
segments of intestine contract and relax, mixing the juices and chyme together
Pancreas
responsible for chyme leaving the stomach, neutralizes the chyme with bicarbonate. releases enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, and lipids
liver
produces bile which helps break apart fats into smaller droplets which increases the surface area for lipase enzymes to work
Gallbladder
A muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion
large intestine (colon)
Absorbs water, vitamins and minerals from gut content
Rectum
stores feces
heart
muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body
blood vessels
the tubes that transport blood around the body
blood
fluid that transports nutrients, O2 and CO2
right atrium
Receives deoxygenated blood from the body
left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
right ventricle
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
left ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood to the body
tricuspid valve
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
pulmonary valve
valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
aortic valve
heart valve between the left ventricle and the aorta
arteries
carry blood Away from the heart
veins
carry blood back to the heart
Capillaries
connect arteries and arterioles to venules and veins
pulmonary circulation
pathway of circulation between the heart and the lungs
Cardiac circulation
The circulation of blood around the heart only
blood makeup
plasma, WBC, RBC, platelets
Hemoglobin
carries oxygen in red blood cells
sinoatrial node
a cluster of cells located in the wall of the right atrium, generates electrical impulses spread over the two atria, and makes them contract simultaneously. stimulates the heart to contract and pump blood to the ventricles
atrioventricular node
cluster of cells located in the center of the heart between atria and ventricles, causes ventricles to contract and pump blood into arteries
Respiration
obtaining oxygen, removing carbon dioxide
external respiration
gas exchange between air in lungs and blood and elimination of CO2
internal respiration
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and tissue cells
cellular respiration
all cells use O2 and release CO2 without respiration, there is no energy.
upper respiratory tract
nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, and trachea
lower respiratory tract
lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
larynx
voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords
trachea
Allows air to pass to and from lungs
bronchi
two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.
lungs
two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration
Bronchioles
Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.
alveoli gas exchange
only one cell thick, gas exchange takes place by diffusion, CO2 diffuses out of bloodstream and 02 diffuses in
law of diffusion
molecules tend to move from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential
DNA
the hereditary material in almost all organisms comprised of a phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
chromosomes
found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
functions of cell division
growth, repair, and maintenance
interphase
stage in which a cell carries out its normal functions, grows and makes copies of it's genetic material. G S G2
G1 phase
The cell grows and the centrosomes duplicate
S phase
the DNA is replicated, DNA in the form of chromatin not chromosomes. now two copies of each chromosome
G2 phase
the cell synthesizes more organelles
prophase
first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromatin shortens and thickens into chromosomes. Each chromosome exists as two copies of one chromosome.
mitosis
the copied genetic material separates and the cell prepares to slit into 2 cells
Metaphase
the spindle fibres guide the chromosomes to the equator of the cell. Centromeres are alined across the middle of the cell. Spindle fibres attach the chromosome.
anaphase
the chromosomes divide. Motor proteins pull on each side of the chromosome. Each centromere splits apart and sister chromatids separate from each other. The separated sister chromatids are now called chromosomes.
Telophase
the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.
cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
diploid cells
cells that have two sets of homologous chromosomes.
haploid cells
have half the normal number of chromosomes
meiosis 1
reproduction process that halves the # of chromosomes and results in diploid cells
Meiosis 2
number of chromosomes is unchanged but the total number of cells increases to four.
crossing over
crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction.
Metaphase 1
the tetrads migrate towards the center of the cell (independent assortment)
anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell. SIster chromosomes are still together.
Telophase 1
homologous chromosomes begin to uncoil and spindle fibres disappear. Nuclear envelopes form. Chromosomes in the two nuclei are not identical
prophase 2
nuclear membrane dissolves spindle fibers form chromosomes condense
metaphase 2
Centromeres of chromosomes line up randomly at the equator of each cell.
anaphase 2
sister chromatids separate
telophase 2
4 new cells
Gametogenesis
formation of sex cells is meiosis (haploid gametes)
spermatogenesis
the production of sperm cells
oogensis
the production of egg cells
structural abnormalities
deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions
Numerical abnormalities
individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes
P generation
parental generation
F1 generation
first gen of offspring, second gen
F2 generation
grandkids
F2 generation
grandkids
alleles
genetic variation of a sequence of DNA
dominant
a dominant trait or gene
recessive
heritable characteristics controlled by genes that are expressed in offspring.
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism; an organism's combination of alleles