requires energy to grow and build larger molecules
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Carbohydrates
Starches and sugars that are broken down to glucose to provide energy.
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Lipids
Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
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Proteins
Nutrients the body uses to build and maintain its cells and tissues
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Vitamins
Compounds found in food that help regulate many body processes
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Minerals
Elements found in food that are used by the body
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mechanical digestion
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
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chemical digestion
Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use
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Enzymes
Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things
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4 stages of digestion
ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
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hydrolisis
the process that carries out the chemical breakdown of large macromolecules for absorption
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Carbohydrase (amylase)
Converts carbohydrates (starch) into simple sugars (maltose)
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Lipase
breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
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protease
breaks down proteins into amino acids
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digestive tracts organs
oral cavity, esophagous, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
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accesory organs
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
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rugae of stomach
series of ridges produced by the folding of the wall of the stomach Function:allow the stomach to expand when needed
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Chyme
liquified bolus
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bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva
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duodenum
receives chyme from stomach, responsible for chemical digestion
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jejunum
main site of absorption, breaks down remaining protein and carbs
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ileum
push undigested food into large intestine
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segmentation movements
segments of intestine contract and relax, mixing the juices and chyme together
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Pancreas
responsible for chyme leaving the stomach, neutralizes the chyme with bicarbonate. releases enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, and lipids
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liver
produces bile which helps break apart fats into smaller droplets which increases the surface area for lipase enzymes to work
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Gallbladder
A muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion
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large intestine (colon)
Absorbs water, vitamins and minerals from gut content
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Rectum
stores feces
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heart
muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body
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blood vessels
the tubes that transport blood around the body
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blood
fluid that transports nutrients, O2 and CO2
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right atrium
Receives deoxygenated blood from the body
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left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
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right ventricle
pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
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left ventricle
pumps oxygenated blood to the body
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tricuspid valve
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
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pulmonary valve
valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
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bicuspid valve (mitral valve)
valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
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aortic valve
heart valve between the left ventricle and the aorta
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arteries
carry blood Away from the heart
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veins
carry blood back to the heart
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Capillaries
connect arteries and arterioles to venules and veins
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pulmonary circulation
pathway of circulation between the heart and the lungs
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Cardiac circulation
The circulation of blood around the heart only
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blood makeup
plasma, WBC, RBC, platelets
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Hemoglobin
carries oxygen in red blood cells
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sinoatrial node
a cluster of cells located in the wall of the right atrium, generates electrical impulses spread over the two atria, and makes them contract simultaneously. stimulates the heart to contract and pump blood to the ventricles
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atrioventricular node
cluster of cells located in the center of the heart between atria and ventricles, causes ventricles to contract and pump blood into arteries
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Respiration
obtaining oxygen, removing carbon dioxide
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external respiration
gas exchange between air in lungs and blood and elimination of CO2
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internal respiration
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and tissue cells
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cellular respiration
all cells use O2 and release CO2 without respiration, there is no energy.
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upper respiratory tract
nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, and trachea
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lower respiratory tract
lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
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larynx
voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords
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trachea
Allows air to pass to and from lungs
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bronchi
two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.
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lungs
two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration
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Bronchioles
Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.
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alveoli gas exchange
only one cell thick, gas exchange takes place by diffusion, CO2 diffuses out of bloodstream and 02 diffuses in
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law of diffusion
molecules tend to move from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential
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DNA
the hereditary material in almost all organisms comprised of a phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine
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chromosomes
found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
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functions of cell division
growth, repair, and maintenance
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interphase
stage in which a cell carries out its normal functions, grows and makes copies of it's genetic material. G S G2
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G1 phase
The cell grows and the centrosomes duplicate
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S phase
the DNA is replicated, DNA in the form of chromatin not chromosomes. now two copies of each chromosome
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G2 phase
the cell synthesizes more organelles
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prophase
first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromatin shortens and thickens into chromosomes. Each chromosome exists as two copies of one chromosome.
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mitosis
the copied genetic material separates and the cell prepares to slit into 2 cells
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Metaphase
the spindle fibres guide the chromosomes to the equator of the cell. Centromeres are alined across the middle of the cell. Spindle fibres attach the chromosome.
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anaphase
the chromosomes divide. Motor proteins pull on each side of the chromosome. Each centromere splits apart and sister chromatids separate from each other. The separated sister chromatids are now called chromosomes.
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Telophase
the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.
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cytokinesis
division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells
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diploid cells
cells that have two sets of homologous chromosomes.
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haploid cells
have half the normal number of chromosomes
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meiosis 1
reproduction process that halves the \# of chromosomes and results in diploid cells
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Meiosis 2
number of chromosomes is unchanged but the total number of cells increases to four.
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crossing over
crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction.
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Metaphase 1
the tetrads migrate towards the center of the cell (independent assortment)
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anaphase 1
homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell. SIster chromosomes are still together.
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Telophase 1
homologous chromosomes begin to uncoil and spindle fibres disappear. Nuclear envelopes form. Chromosomes in the two nuclei are not identical
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prophase 2
nuclear membrane dissolves spindle fibers form chromosomes condense
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metaphase 2
Centromeres of chromosomes line up randomly at the equator of each cell.
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anaphase 2
sister chromatids separate
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telophase 2
4 new cells
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Gametogenesis
formation of sex cells is meiosis (haploid gametes)