biology

Catabolism

requires energy to break down larger molecules

anabolism

requires energy to grow and build larger molecules

Carbohydrates

Starches and sugars that are broken down to glucose to provide energy.

Lipids

Energy-rich organic compounds, such as fats, oils, and waxes, that are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Proteins

Nutrients the body uses to build and maintain its cells and tissues

Vitamins

Compounds found in food that help regulate many body processes

Minerals

Elements found in food that are used by the body

mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

chemical digestion

Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use

Enzymes

Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things

4 stages of digestion

ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination

hydrolisis

the process that carries out the chemical breakdown of large macromolecules for absorption

Carbohydrase (amylase)

Converts carbohydrates (starch) into simple sugars (maltose)

Lipase

breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

protease

breaks down proteins into amino acids

digestive tracts organs

oral cavity, esophagous, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

accesory organs

salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

rugae of stomach

series of ridges produced by the folding of the wall of the stomach
Function:allow the stomach to expand when needed

Chyme

liquified bolus

bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva

duodenum

receives chyme from stomach, responsible for chemical digestion

jejunum

main site of absorption, breaks down remaining protein and carbs

ileum

push undigested food into large intestine

segmentation movements

segments of intestine contract and relax, mixing the juices and chyme together

Pancreas

responsible for chyme leaving the stomach, neutralizes the chyme with bicarbonate.
releases enzymes that break down carbs, proteins, and lipids

liver

produces bile which helps break apart fats into smaller droplets which increases the surface area for lipase enzymes to work

Gallbladder

A muscular sac attached to the liver that secretes bile and stores it until needed for digestion

large intestine (colon)

Absorbs water, vitamins and minerals from gut content

Rectum

stores feces

heart

muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body

blood vessels

the tubes that transport blood around the body

blood

fluid that transports nutrients, O2 and CO2

right atrium

Receives deoxygenated blood from the body

left atrium

receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

right ventricle

pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs

left ventricle

pumps oxygenated blood to the body

tricuspid valve

valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle

pulmonary valve

valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

bicuspid valve (mitral valve)

valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

aortic valve

heart valve between the left ventricle and the aorta

arteries

carry blood Away from the heart

veins

carry blood back to the heart

Capillaries

connect arteries and arterioles to venules and veins

pulmonary circulation

pathway of circulation between the heart and the lungs

Cardiac circulation

The circulation of blood around the heart only

blood makeup

plasma, WBC, RBC, platelets

Hemoglobin

carries oxygen in red blood cells

sinoatrial node

a cluster of cells located in the wall of the right atrium, generates electrical impulses spread over the two atria, and makes them contract simultaneously. stimulates the heart to contract and pump blood to the ventricles

atrioventricular node

cluster of cells located in the center of the heart between atria and ventricles, causes ventricles to contract and pump blood into arteries

Respiration

obtaining oxygen, removing carbon dioxide

external respiration

gas exchange between air in lungs and blood and elimination of CO2

internal respiration

exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and tissue cells

cellular respiration

all cells use O2 and release CO2 without respiration, there is no energy.

upper respiratory tract

nose, mouth, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, and trachea

lower respiratory tract

lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

larynx

voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords

trachea

Allows air to pass to and from lungs

bronchi

two short branches located at the lower end of the trachea that carry air into the lungs.

lungs

two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration

Bronchioles

Airways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.

alveoli gas exchange

only one cell thick, gas exchange takes place by diffusion, CO2 diffuses out of bloodstream and 02 diffuses in

law of diffusion

molecules tend to move from areas of higher chemical potential to areas of lower chemical potential

DNA

the hereditary material in almost all organisms comprised of
a phosphate backbone, adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

chromosomes

found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells

functions of cell division

growth, repair, and maintenance

interphase

stage in which a cell carries out its normal functions, grows and makes copies of it's genetic material. G S G2

G1 phase

The cell grows and the centrosomes duplicate

S phase

the DNA is replicated, DNA in the form of chromatin not chromosomes. now two copies of each chromosome

G2 phase

the cell synthesizes more organelles

prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromatin shortens and thickens into chromosomes. Each chromosome exists as two copies of one chromosome.

mitosis

the copied genetic material separates and the cell prepares to slit into 2 cells

Metaphase

the spindle fibres guide the chromosomes to the equator of the cell. Centromeres are alined across the middle of the cell. Spindle fibres attach the chromosome.

anaphase

the chromosomes divide. Motor proteins pull on each side of the chromosome. Each centromere splits apart and sister chromatids separate from each other. The separated sister chromatids are now called chromosomes.

Telophase

the final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.

cytokinesis

division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells

diploid cells

cells that have two sets of homologous chromosomes.

haploid cells

have half the normal number of chromosomes

meiosis 1

reproduction process that halves the \# of chromosomes and results in diploid cells

Meiosis 2

number of chromosomes is unchanged but the total number of cells increases to four.

crossing over

crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction.

Metaphase 1

the tetrads migrate towards the center of the cell (independent assortment)

anaphase 1

homologous chromosomes separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell. SIster chromosomes are still together.

Telophase 1

homologous chromosomes begin to uncoil and spindle fibres disappear. Nuclear envelopes form. Chromosomes in the two nuclei are not identical

prophase 2

nuclear membrane dissolves
spindle fibers form
chromosomes condense

metaphase 2

Centromeres of chromosomes line up randomly at the equator of each cell.

anaphase 2

sister chromatids separate

telophase 2

4 new cells

Gametogenesis

formation of sex cells is meiosis (haploid gametes)

spermatogenesis

the production of sperm cells

oogensis

the production of egg cells

structural abnormalities

deletions, duplications, translocations, inversions

Numerical abnormalities

individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes

P generation

parental generation

F1 generation

first gen of offspring, second gen

F2 generation

grandkids

F2 generation

grandkids

alleles

genetic variation of a sequence of DNA

dominant

a dominant trait or gene

recessive

heritable characteristics controlled by genes that are expressed in offspring.

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism; an organism's combination of alleles