AP biology

Emergent properties

New properties that arise from interactions among components of a system

What causes polarity in a molecule?

Unequal sharing of electrons due to differences in electronegativity

Hydrogen bonds

Weak attractions between partially positive hydrogen atoms and partially negative atoms

Why is water essential for life?

Its polarity allows cohesion, adhesion, temperature regulation, and solvent properties

pH scale

A logarithmic scale measuring hydrogen ion concentration

What does a change of 1 pH unit represent?

A tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration

Buffer

A substance that minimizes changes in pH by accepting or donating hydrogen ions

Carbohydrate monomer

Monosaccharide

Carbohydrate function

Short-term energy and structural support

Lipid function

Long-term energy storage, membranes, insulation

Protein monomer

Amino acid

Protein function

Enzymes, structure, signaling, transport

Nucleic acid monomer

Nucleotide

Nucleic acid function

Store and transmit genetic information

Peptide bond

Bond formed between amino acids during dehydration synthesis

Primary protein structure

Sequence of amino acids

Secondary protein structure

Alpha helices and beta pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonding

Tertiary protein structure

Interactions among R groups

Quaternary protein structure

Interaction of multiple polypeptide chains

Enzyme

A biological catalyst that lowers activation energy

Activation energy

Energy required to start a chemical reaction

Competitive inhibitor

Competes with substrate for active site

Noncompetitive inhibitor

Binds elsewhere and alters enzyme shape

Cell theory

All living things are made of cells, cells come from preexisting cells, cells are the basic unit of life

Prokaryotic cell

Cell without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

Eukaryotic cell

Cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Nucleus

Stores DNA and controls cell activities

Ribosome

Site of protein synthesis

Rough ER

Synthesizes proteins for secretion or membranes

Smooth ER

Lipid synthesis and detoxification

Golgi apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and ships proteins

Mitochondria

Site of cellular respiration

Chloroplast

Site of photosynthesis

Lysosome

Contains enzymes that digest macromolecules

Fluid mosaic model

Describes the flexible membrane with embedded proteins

Phospholipid bilayer

Structure of the membrane with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from high to low concentration

Facilitated diffusion

Passive transport using membrane proteins

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Active transport

Movement of molecules against a concentration gradient using energy

Hypotonic solution

Lower solute concentration than the cell

Hypertonic solution

Higher solute concentration than the cell

Isotonic solution

Equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell

ATP

Primary energy currency of the cell

Anabolic pathway

Builds complex molecules

Catabolic pathway

Breaks down complex molecules

Photosynthesis equation

6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Light reactions location

Thylakoid membrane

Products of light reactions

ATP, NADPH, and oxygen

Calvin cycle location

Stroma of the chloroplast

Purpose of Calvin cycle

Uses CO₂ to produce G3P

Role of RuBisCO

Catalyzes carbon fixation

Cellular respiration equation

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP

Glycolysis location

Cytoplasm

Glycolysis products

2 ATP, NADH, pyruvate

Krebs cycle location

Mitochondrial matrix

Electron transport chain location

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Purpose of ETC

Produce ATP using chemiosmosis

Fermentation

Anaerobic process that regenerates NAD⁺

Cell signaling

Process by which cells communicate using chemical signals

Ligand

Signaling molecule that binds to a receptor

Reception

Ligand binds to receptor

Transduction

Signal cascade that amplifies the signal

Response

Specific cellular reaction to a signal

Negative feedback

Reduces a response to maintain homeostasis

Positive feedback

Amplifies a response

Cell cycle

Series of events leading to cell division

Interphase

G₁, S, and G₂ phases

Purpose of S phase

DNA replication

Mitosis

Division of the nucleus

Order of mitosis

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm

Cyclins and CDKs

Proteins that regulate the cell cycle

Cancer

Result of uncontrolled cell division

Why are control groups important?

They provide a baseline for comparison