The Futile Search for Stability: Europe Between the Wars, 1919-1939

Read the yellow section on page 796-77, why did Europe face such economic and social hardships following World War I? How much better off was the United States at this time?

It took till 1922 to begin to recover, people were starving in wake of the great depression, the U.S. was just as bad.

How did Europeans deal with the devastating losses following World War I?

It really had a profound affect on traditional society and its view of progress, in France 2/3 of the population entered a period of mourning, additionally war memorials were placed, the war also created a lost generation of veterans.

What is the 'Lost Generation'?

The veterans of WW1 who became disillusioned by the war, with some becoming pacifists while others were fiercely nationalistic, and violent wanting to reclaim nationalistic interests they felt were lost in peace treaties.

What ideology motivated the Treaty of Versailles? What kind of effect did it have on the various European countries? How did Germany, the United States, and others react to post-war treaties?

Nationalism, it left nations largely unsatisfied by border redrawing's, Germany saw the peace as a dictated peace and the U.S. believed that some of the terms had potential to cause new conflict.

Why did the French hold resentment towards the US after WWI?

They resented the U.S. because the treaty formation of the league of nations was weak and the U.S. did not form an alliance with France.

Why was France so insistent on enforcing the Treaty of Versailles in a strict manner? What was the Ruhr and why did the French troops occupy this region?

In order to ensure security and protection from Germany, a German valley that allies threatened to occupy causing Germany to accept the treaty terms and reparations, however their eventual failure to pay led to France invading

What is hyperinflation? What happened to Germany's economy by the time 1923 rolled around?

When an economy inflates at an insanely high rate, by 1923 one dollar was worth 130 billion marks

Who are Gustav Stresemann and Charles Dawes? What roles did they play in assisting the German economy?

Stresemann was the leader of Germany and he moved Germany to honor their part of the treaty agreement, Dawes formed a plan to reduce the reparations imposed on Germany and implement a design to help stabilize the German economy.

What were the terms of the Treaty of Locarno? Why did it create such a sense of optimism that peace would be maintained in Western Europe?

This treaty guaranteed Germany's new border with France and Belgium, viewed as a move towards peace.

What was the Kellogg-Briand pact? Were militaries (other than Germany's) agreeing to disarm at this time?

It was an agreement that entered 63 nations to reject war as a national policy, however they would not reduce their arms, only Germany was reduced.

How were Western relations with Russia in the years after Lenin's death?

They established hopeful full diplomatic relations, however they still remained suspicious.

What made European economics in the decade from 1919-1929 uncommonly fragile? What kind of shifts occurred during and after the war, compared to how things were before the war began?

It was very fragile because of a wave of protectionism, trade barriers, and reparations, free trade was replaced and during the war business cartels and labor unions gained strength.

What were the two major contributing factors to the Great Depression? How exactly did each of these play a role?

There was a downturn in the domestic economies and was culminated into an international crisis due to the American stock market crisis. Additionally, agriculture prices dropped sharply. After the collapse of the stock market American investors pulled funds from Germany and other European nations, weakening the state of Europe and the bank of Germany.

Why is unemployment such a major indicator and troubling factor during any economic depression?

Because the severity of the unemployment showed the magnitude of the depression, ¼ were unemployed in Britain during 1932, and 40% of Germans were unemployed.

What kinds of social repercussions did the Great Depression expectedly cause?

As a result, women were able to gain low paying jobs, unemployment led young men to join gangs, additionally gov. increased involvement in economies, and renewal of Marxism, and uprising of fascism.

What made Great Britain's post war experience particularly economically painful? What kinds of governmental shifts were seen to compensate for some of these hardships?

They faced a decline of products essential to their market such as the commodities of coal, steel, and textiles, shift to the labor party, Ramsay MacDonald became the first labor party prime minister.

How well did France cope with its most immediate needs of rebuilding the war-torn regions of Northeastern France in the post-war era? What made France's government particularly chaotic in the Great Depression, post 1932?

Not as well. Economic instability soon had political repercussions. Between 1932 and 1933, 6 different cabinets were formed as France faced political chaos.

Scandinavian nations often utilized social-democracy to cope with the economic downturn. How well did this work and why?

They were successful, as they formed industrial cooperative complexes which proved successful in avoiding the pitfalls of either communist or capitalist systems.

What made the United States' experience of the Great Depression particularly bad? What measures did FDR take in the 1930s to restore some stability and recover?

Industrial production was down by 50%, making them 2nd in devastating impact behind Germany, FDR created an approach based on policy formation of active gov. involvement which came to became known as the new deal, which included numerous agencies designed for relief, recovery, and reform, and moved the U.S. to slow economic recovery.

Describe what made the interwar years a period of transition for middle eastern nations.

New modernizing regimes emerged in Turkey and Iran. An independent government was established in Saudi Arabia. Iraq gained it's independence from Britain. Ataturk's determined efforts to use nationalism and western ways helped to create a modern Turkish state.

What movements led by Gandhi began in India in the post-WWI era? How did civil disobedience play a role in this?

Led a nonviolent movement to improve the station of life for poor people in India, civil disobedience was the method by which India gained independence.

While independence for the various ethnic groups of Africa remained a distant dream, what kinds of movements did WWI tend to provoke in various regions in Africa?

Political movements calling for independence with a new young generation of African leaders with education in Europe and the U.S.

Who was WEB DuBois? Who was Marcus Garvey? What roles did each of these men play in advocating for African rights?

Leaders and main proponents of the Pan-African movement which had tried to make all Africans conscious of there African heritage, urged for the unity of all of Africa.

What happened to Woodrow Wilson's claim that WWI had been fought to establish liberal democracies across the globe? Why did it appear to actually have, ultimately, almost the exact opposite effect?

It was not in fact the case as the rough conditions created by the war led to a movement towards more radical political ideologies.

Division, mistrust, fragility, anxiety. Each of these terms describes the interwar years mentality. Why? What effects (notice that is plural) did this have on European society?

Divisions occurred along class lines, additionally there were gender divisions that arose as women were forced out of jobs from which they held during the war. People felt disillusioned. Led people to divide friends and enemies. Conflict now held greater power than compromise. Led to the rise of authoritarian structures and totalitarian regimes.

When Europeans felt victimized and fearful, they often turned to more radicalized political policies like communism and fascism. What is fascism? And why did Europeans turn to these kinds of political ideals?

Extreme political ideology that favored extreme nationalism while pushing for anticommunism and antistrike, they grew out of extreme right focus. Growing focus on nationalism and for German racism.

What is a "totalitarian state" what kinds of politics can it be applied to? What are the features of totalitarianism?

A government led by a single leader and a single party which harshly rejected the liberal ide of limited gov. Fascism and extreme conservatism.

Spielvogel argues the extent to which various European states can actually be considered truly totalitarian. What were some of the points raised in this argument? What do some revisionist historians think of the term? What is the reasoning behind this?

He argues that each totalitarian state was had extreme differences and no one was completely successful in gaining total control.

Why were the conditions in post-WWI Italy so dire in both social and economic costs? What was the myth surrounding being "cheated" out of the Treaty of Versailles?

They had heavy casualties with 700,000 soldiers and faced heavy war debt with 148 billion lire and since it was newly independent the state of their nation hung in the balance, the myth was Italy was cheated out of Fiume and Dalmatia.

Who is Benito Mussolini? How did his early days differ from his movement in the interwar years?

Eventual fascist leader of Italy, Early days was a socialist, eventually moved to extreme right and fascism during interwar years.

What elements of the Italian political landscape allowed Mussolini a window of opportunity to capture popular support from his fellow Italians?

The middle class were fearful of working class uprisings while landowners hated agricultural strikes giving Mussolini an opportunity as he saw Italians were angry having felt cheated out of the war.

Who were the Squadristi and what did they do? How did the alliance formed between the Fascists and the Liberals work in Italy?

Group of armed fascists, who under the direction of Mussolini attacked socialist offices and new sources. It was with Giovanni Giolitti who believed an alliance could end socialism and would only be temporary.

What roles did the notions of "order" vs. "disorder" play a role in the rise of Fascism in Italy?

Mussolini intentionally sought to maintain an environment of disorder which he believed would allow fascism to thrive, however the party presented themselves as an ordered entity.

What was the "March on Rome" and what was the alleged versus actual goal of this movement? How did it turn out?

Plan by the Italian fascists to seize power, its stated goal was to seize power however in truth it was a bluff to have the gov. give them power, King Victor Emmanuel III handed power over and the black shirts marched in claiming armed insurrection had gained them power.

Why was holding an election so important to the new Prime Minister of Italy, Benito Mussolini? What kind of maneuvers did he begin to make after establishing his dictatorship?

He believed it was essential in order to consolidate power and ensure his government had a more secure platform to continue on, he implemented press laws which gave gov. the right to suspend any publications, while also making the prime minister the head of gov. with legislature power, additionally he added a police law to empower the police with the ability to arrest anybody without due process of law, lastly anti fascist parties were outlawed and a secret police (OVRA) was established.

How successful were some of Mussolini's attempts to create a police state or exercise control over all propaganda outlets?

They were not nearly as successful as Nazi Germany was, in both policing and implementation of propaganda.

Why did Mussolini rely on the Young Fascists so much? What was the goal of these youth organizations?

Because he could have little influence in secondary schools which maintained sizeable freedom, they wanted to create a new Italian image, well disciplined, fit, smart, and martially inclined.

What were the fascist policies regarding women and family in Italy?

They wanted women in the home to be homemakers and baby producers embracing their natural and fundamental mission in life.

What might be considered some of the major shortcomings (or even full blown failures) of the Fascist movement in Italy? How did it compare to other allegedly totalitarian states?

The inability to maintain a large degree of control seen otherwise in Germany, and they never destroyed the old power structure system.

Where did Adolf Hitler come from? Describe some of his background and early formative years prior to becoming a better known political figure.

He grew up in Austria failing in secondary school going on to become an artist, and his time in which he lived in Vienna led him to form his philosophy including racist and anti-sematic views, becoming an extreme German nationalist. The war brought great excitement to his life and upon returning back to Germany moved into politics.

What was the Weimar Republic and why was it particularly destined to fail? Put differently, what were the foremost problems facing this new government in Germany? Your response should investigate social, historical, and economic realms.

The republic which was formed in Germany after WW1 with Paul von Hindenburg as president, it proved unstable, it suffered politically from undermining attacks by both the right and the left, additionally it could not transform Germany's fundamental governmental structure, it never controlled the army or other types of institutions, and landed aristocrats/ business leaders kept hostility towards the empire. Furthermore, inflation had caused social issues, which caused German middle class to favor right parties which did not favor the republic.

Hitler's party, the NSDAP, was originally obscure. How did it come to attract so many followers? What kinds of various elements did the party possess to make it appealing?

It was Hitler's speaking skills which gave him a following.

What was the Beer Hall Putsch and how did it end?

It was Hitler's attempt to take over the German gov. landed him a 5 year treason prison sentence in which he wrote Mien Kampf

While in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf. What does this mean and what kinds of arguments were laid out in this piece?

Autobiography meaning my fight, it contained his accounts of his movement and ideology, which were extreme German nationalism, anti-Semitism, and anticommunism with Darwinist elements. In the piece he stressed the right of superior nations to Lebensraum and the right of the superior individual to gain authoritarian leadership.

How did Hitler go about reorganizing the NSDAP to achieve his goal of "Fuhrerprinzip" in the years 1925-1929?

He changed it to prepare for mass political movement aiming to gain power constitutionally. By 1929 they were a national party with 178,000 members.

What factors in the Weimar Republic surrounding political party fragmentation and men like Heinrich Bruning and Paul von Hindenburg had sealed the fate of democracy in Germany before Hitler even became chancellor?

The economic difficulties the nation had felt, with unemployment rising from 4.5 million in 1931 to 6 million in 1932.

From 1930 to 1933, the Nazi party grew in astounding numbers. What kinds of techniques did they use to garner such widespread support?

They developed modern electioneering processes, appealed to peoples needs and fears, appealed to nationalism.

Why didn't it concern Hitler when the number of Reichstag seats held by the Nazi party dropped from 230 to 196 in just four months? What kinds of major backing did Hitler have after personifying right-wing authoritarianism?

He knew they would never just gain power through the box, he saw that the gov. was ruled by decree with the support of President Hindenburg, all the important industrial leaders, military establishment, and important bureaucrats supported him. It was through pressure by these forces of elites that the President allowed Hitler to become the chancellor and create a new government.

How did Hermann Goering and Hitler establish control over the police force and what excuse gave them the authority to freely arrest and imprison their opponents?

They purged the police of anti-Nazis and established a police force of SA members legitimizing Nazi terror, they issued emergency powers to be able to arrest anyone.

What is "Gleichschaltung" and why was it an important feature of the Nazi agenda?

It was the coordination of all institutions under Nazi control, it gave total control to Hitler and his agenda. Got rid of Jewish civil service and democratic elements. Established concentration camps. Eliminated autonomy of the federal states. Dissolved trade unions and all parties except the Nazis.

How exactly did the Nazis manage (and I'm looking for various explanations) to seize power so quickly in Germany?

They were ruthless. They were ready to take control. The economic depression and failure of Weimer Republic gave them a foothold. Nazi's were seen as an opportunity for a national awakening.

Who remained as the only two viable threats to Hitler's takeover and how did Hitler neutralize them? (Think of it this way, if Hitler is Darth Sidious in Star Wars, who played the real life roles of the Jedi Order and the Clone Army in Episode III: Revenge of the Sith).

The armed forces. The SA in his own party (Ernst Rohm) Fixed both problems on June 30, 1934 by having Rohm and other SA leaders killed in return for the army's support in granting Hitler the position of successor after Hindenburg died.

What techniques did Hitler use to gain mass appeal? What were his ideological goals for Germany?

He utilized mass demonstrations and grand spectacles (Nuremberg party rallies, Harvest Festivals at Buckeberg).

Explain Hitler's approach to fixing the economy in Germany. How much direct control was or was not exerted over various industries? What put people to work? How were labor unions handled?

Hitler established control however industry itself was not nationalized, (mostly ) rearmament and some public works projects brought jobs, unemployment went from 6 million in 1932 to 2.6 million by 1934 and less than 500,000 by 1937, the German Labor Front led by Robert Ley was in charge of the state run labor union.

What is the Schutzstaffel and what made it such an essential component of the Nazi regime? What role did Himmler play in the SS?

They were protection squads, originally Hitler's bodyguards, Himmler led the SS, and began controlling all police force components, he pushed terror and ideology, they saw themselves as a crusading order whose goal was to further the Aryan race.

Describe the numerous ways civilian life came under the control of the Nazis.

Church activities, primary and secondary schooling as well as college, came under state control. Additionally new professional organizations were formed by state control.

Compare how the lives of women were affected by the Nazi regime to how they were affected under Mussolini? Are there some common features? Distinguishing features?

They were seen very similarly as child bearing entities, motherhood was crowned as the most important feature of women, they also sought to get women out of industry. However, after labor shortages occurred the gov. began asking women to seek jobs in former male dominated sectors.

What were the Nuremburg laws and what were they intended to achieve in Germany? How did the Nuremburg Laws evolve over time? What was Kristallnacht and how was it related to the laws?

They were new racial laws which excluded German Jews from being citizens and forbid relationships between the Jewish and Germans, they evolved to increasingly excluded Jews from German society. It was a destructive rampage against Jews leading to the burning of synagogues, and destruction of Jewish businesses as well as 7,000 Jewish deaths, and lastly a total of 30,000 Jewish males were taken to concentration camps. It further evolved Jewish exclusion as well barring Jews from public building's and maintaining ownership or working in retail.

What was the policy of "War Communism" pursued by Lenin and the Red Army during the Russian Civil War? How successful was it?

It was the nationalization of businesses as well as industry, transportation, finance system, and communication. It was not very successful as there was widespread hunger and famine with 5 million deaths, additionally industrial output declined to 20%.

What was the NEP and what was it designed to achieve?

It was the New Economic Policy, which meant it was a revised version of the old capitalist system in which he sought to help the Russian economy recover, it sought to return to private industry to boost Russia back to a healthy economy, boosted agriculture output by 75%.

When Lenin ultimately died in 1924, what was the series of events that occurred in the power struggle that ensued between Trotsky and Stalin? How did Stalin solidify his position?

Trotsky was on the left side advocating for the end of the NEP, wanting to continue the revolution, while Stalin was on the right seeking to concentrate on constructing a socialist state, seeking to avoid rapid industrialization. Stalin as the party general secretary used his position to gain complete control of the communist party, with Trotsky being expelled from the party in 1927, successfully eliminating the old Bolsheviks while gaining dictatorial power.

What made Stalin's rule over Russia much more radical than the revolution of 1917? What were the two five-year plans that he enacted supposed to achieve?

He made huge shifts in economic policy through his five-year plan which goal was to transform the agricultural state to an industrialized one, it quadrupled the production of heavy machines doubled oil production, increased steel production from 4 to 18 million, and coal output from 36 to 128 million tons.

What were the social and political costs of rapid industrialization?

There were terrible living conditions, additionally wages declined.

Under the communists, women had obtained relative equality under the law (abortion and divorce rights). How was this affected under Stalin?

A new divorce law was implemented declaring repeated divorces a criminal offense, and switched to favoring motherhood for women rather than previous independence.

How did authoritarian regimes in Eastern European nation-states between Germany and the Soviet Union differ from the totalitarian regimes in those places? What was the last bastion of democracy in Central-Eastern Europe?

They were not aimed at creating a mass movement for the transformation of society rather the preservation of the old existing social order, Czechoslovakia was the last anti-authoritarian nation.

How did parliamentary government die in Spain? What was the Spanish Civil War all about? How did Generalissimo Franco prevail? Franco remained in power until 1975, but how was it different from other dictatorships?

As Spain was unable to deal with social tensions King Alfonso XIII and General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a military coup that resulted in a dictatorship, however the dictatorship collapsed with the Great Depression and a republic was instituted, Civil war was between left Republicans who supported Popular Front and the right were the Nationalists who supported the monarchy. It was not fascist it supported landowners and business, and Catholicism as well as other traditional conservative values.

How did popular American culture during the Roaring Twenties infiltrate into certain regions of Europe? Give some examples.

Through new forms of communication with the radio giving music and dance an ability to spread as well as movie theatres, Jazz spread as well.

In what ways did radio and movie completely change European culture? In what sorts of fashions were these new inventions used by various people?

It lead to new opportunities to reach the masses, some uses were political such as propaganda by the Nazi's.

How did mass leisure expand in the areas of sports and tourism during this era?

Sports expanded for mass audiences, leading to stadium building for mass attendance, planes made new civilian tourism more accessible.

How did organized mass culture manifest in fascist Italy and Germany? How was mass leisure different in those areas than other areas of Europe?

They were formed through leisure organizations which created the leisure facilities desired, they were different in that they were instituted by the state.

How did pre-war avant-garde movements and beliefs continue into the post-war era? How did this manifest itself in sexuality and new attitudes about gender appropriate behaviors?

They became more widespread, the war determined that human nature was violent and irrational leading to the acceptance of new practices and breakdown of traditional values, leading to the greater acceptance of discussion of sex as well as more revealing style for women.

Give a synopsis of each of the following post-war artistic trends via an example of a piece and its relative significance to the movement:

German Expressionism: Otto Dix "The War" depicted the devastating effects of the war showing how much the war had directly impacted German expressionists Dadaism: "Dada Dance" (Hannah Hoch) was a piece that criticized the new woman by making fun of new fashion style, illustrating how this art aimed to find the purposefulness of life Surrealism: "The Persistence of Memory" by Salvador Dali showed objects that are well known in a different context with aims to portray a reality beyond the material world by portraying fantasies, nightmares, or dreams Functionalism: The Bauhaus by Walter Gropius with straight forwarded features of steel and concrete it showed how this building was meant to be designed for practical use Art Deco: The Chrysler building, was a popular form of decorating architecture in the 20s and 30s.

How did artists adapt to changing mass culture attitudes in this time?

They would find new ways to search for a wider audience for example they began involving themselves in popular mass culture.