Tsarist and Communist Russia essay plans 1855-1964

argument on political authority and governance under Alex 2 1855-1881

• The changes made the to class structure diminishing noble power, the basis of autocratic support, and enabling a liberal voice most significantly challenge political authority.
• The changes made to class structure meant harder to address opposition since came from top until turning point in 1866 where political authority reasserted, but not totally successful.
• The authority over nationalities was initially questioned, but quickly suppressed reasserting tsarist authority.

evidence to support changes to class structure being most significant at undermining Alex 2's political authority 1855-1881

• 1861 Emancipation of Serfs till 1905 nobles lost 30% of their land and 50% was mortgaged- only estonian nobles sent suggestions
• creation of zemstva in 1864, nobles had 41% seats, 'seedbeds of liberalism' Westwood
• 1874 military reforms, nobles lost conscription exemption, nobles in officer roles 81% in 1860's to 12% in 1900.

evidence to support changes to class structure meant repression of opposition which undermined authority was harder 1855-1881

• 1866 Dmitri Karakozov attempted assassination of tsar, noble born when tsar presumed he was noble born
• repression- 150,000 sent to exile in siberia 1866-80,
• socio-economic conditions led to sympathetic juries eg 1878 Vera Zasulich who attempted to murder Gov General St P-Berg
• zemstva creation in 1864, national state of emergency declared in 1879 with governors overruling zemstva who were increasingly radical

evidence to support than after oppressing nationalities, political authority of tsar was reasserted.

• government proposed conscripted poles into Russian army from Jan 1863- caused rebellion of 1864

• rebellion crushed by Aug 1864, 80,000 polish exiled, poland ceased to exist- Russian provence of Vistitulaland

• 1859 Russian force created to force surrender of all muslim tribes

• 1864 Circassian muslims crushed, 400,000 forced to emigrate to Turkey, 400,000 resettled to north Russia.

argument on development of opposition and its efficacy under Alex 2 1855-1881

• opposition through terrorism most tangible and ultimately successful through assassination of tsar- did not intend to spread ideology but to take action
• radical ideologies failed to be spread in Russia wanting create an extensive uprising, suppressed- long term not supressed effectively
• nationalities marking opposition easily suppressed, not ideologically motivated, but by nationalistic desires, showed brutality of tsar

evidence to support idea that opposition through terrorism was most significant threat to Alex 2 taking action, not focussing on ideology

• 3 early assassination attempts at the tsar 1866, April 1879, Nov 1879 and Feb 1880, assassinated in 1881 by People's Will. People's Will created in 1879 so terrorism took place before, only aim was to kill tsar
• People's Will had 100 members and 2000 who were sympathetic
• Vera Zasulich attempt to assassinate Gov General of St P-Berg , put on trial in 1878, acquitted by sympathetic jury
• 1872-73 nihilist Nechayev murdered fellow revolutionary to assert his own authority, handed in his conspirators- terrorism not affected by ideology here.

evidence to support the idea that radical ideologies failed to make a meaningful impact under Alex 2, however represent long-term opposition so not effectively suppressed.

• Narodny movement of 2000 going to people in 1874, met with confusion.
• 1877 193 populists put on trial, Pyotr Lavrov used to speak against tsar, insignificant since 120/193 were sent to for hard labour.
• Censorship released 1855-1866, What is Done? published by Chernvshevsky after censor made a mistake, was sent to siberia
• 1869 Marx's communist manifesto published into Russian by radicals- long term ideological oppostion, while did not threaten Alex 2

evidence to support the idea that opposition to Alex 2 from nationalities was not ideologically motivated and was easily suppressed by tsar.

• Polish rebellion motivated by proposal to conscript poles in russian army in jan 1863

• national uprising brutally crushed by 1864- 80,000 exiled to siberia, Poland turned into Vistiulaland

• Caucuses repressed without representing major opposition- Alex wanted to protect christians from muslims
  -1864 Circassian muslims crushed- 400,000 forced emigration to Turkey, 400,000 sent to north Russia

argument on economic development and change under Alex 2 1855-1881.

• most development through fiscal reform, whilst undermined by war with Turkey, enabled changes to economic structure and provided funding for limited industrial change
  -industry had some limited development with trainlines and somewhat growing middle class- but as a result of no entrepreneurship and no free labour since serfs restricted
• agriculture did not develop, if anything got worst, serfs still restricted, no free movement of labour, prevented development in other areas

evidence to support the idea that there was most development fiscally to russia's economy 1855-1881, but that it still wasn't major.

• state bank in 1860, municipal banks in 1862, saving banks in 1869- stabilise financially
• 1861 78 'joint stock' companies but 357 in 1873
• Von Reutern building up precious metal reserves 10% value of circulation in 1864 to 29% circulation in 1876
• 45% spending spend on army post crimea, victory at Turkey in 1878, but destabilised economy and value of roubles

evidence to support the idea that there was limited industrial growth but that it was funded by fiscal reform but help back from agricultural policy.

• between 1861-1876 government loaned 1.8 billion roubles to railway companies.

• 1855, 570 miles of railways(9% of what Britain had) by 1880 14,000 miles

• coal production increased by 30% 1861-69

• in 1860, Russian's iron output was 10% of Britain's so consequently Russia had to import 70% of its machinery

• working class population increase from 700,000 in 1865 to 1.4 million in 1890

evidence to the support the idea that agricultural policy did not develop and prevented economic development from taking place.

• Emancipation of Serfs 1861
• 'temporary obligation', state serf 5 years, private serfs 2 years, but couldn't leave land until 49 redemption payments were paid off
  -15% of serfs in still in temporary obligation by 1881, by 1880 in north 46% of redemption payments in arrears
• from emancipation to 1890 average peasant farm halved in size
  -lack of education so no entrepreneurship- despite 1865 elementary statute, by 1897 only 24% of Russia was literate.

argument on social/cultural change under Alex 2 1855-1881

-the emancipation of 1861 was the driving factor as to whether social change took place.

• most social change took place to the role of nobles since their power was reduced- giving up land for peasants and giving up power to urban class
• urban class experience some level of change as a result of emancipation, but not very significant. more significant in terms of growing political voice.
• peasants, lives remained stagnant with no social mobility, however in long term could be some level of change.

evidence to support the idea that most social change took place to the nobility since they lost land and political power

• nobles led at crimea in 1853-1856 so consequently in 1874 lost their exemption from conscription which led to 12% officer being noble born in 1900 vs 81% in 1860's
• university statute of 1863 took away noble privilege since university became more accessible
• following emancipation in 1861, 13 nobles imprisoned for speaking of radical reform since power lost as 30% noble land sold 1861-1905.
• However, represent 41% in zemstva created in 1864, but not same level of power as before.

evidence to support the idea that the urban class experienced some change by gaining political voice, but still a minority

• the urban population grew from 700,000 in 1865 to 1.4 million in 1890 but Russian population at over 200 million at this time
• peasants restricted from moving, mir system, could not leave until all 49 redemption payments were paid off
• zemstva creation in 1864 and duma creation in 1870 to manage conditions in urban areas
• growing political voice shown through first major strike in 1870 in St P-Berg

evidence to support the idea that lives for the peasants under Alex 2 did not drastically change, however some reforms may have greater long term impact of change.

• Emancipation edict 1861, could not leave until 49 annual redemption payments made, state serf 5 years, private serf 2 years temporary obligation
• 1881 only 15% in temporary obligation so long term change
• by 1880 9% redemption payments in arrears in south and 46% in north
• Primary education statute of 1865 when 400,000 in school increased to over a million in 1878- possible social mobility could arise in long term

argument on political authority and governance under Alex 3 1881-1894

• All policies implemented with regards to maintaining and asserting political authority ensure for the most part Alex 3's authority was maintained, but caused significant issues for Nick 2.
• most significantly held political authority by increasing repression and establishing police state, decreased threat in aftermath of 1881 assassination- ensured gaps in control of expression could be supressed
• the enforcement of russification ensured that tsarist political authority was asserted by using methods of increased repression- but in long term radicals from periphery areas
• the increased control on expression had least success in asserting political authority since there were gaps having significant long term effects, authority asserting by using repression

evidence to support the idea that political authority was most clearly and successfully ensured through the use of repression and establishment of a police state.

• following assassination of Alex 2 5 radicals were executed and 10,000 arrests were made.
• 1881 Reinforced safeguard was introduced- arrest with no trial up to 3 months, increased surveillance
• Okhrana, police surveillance act 1882 use of torture and search without warrant
• 4 times more people exiled under Alex 3 than in the 1870's
• However urban middle class growing discontent with Alex 3- zemstva gained support for aid given during 1891/92 famine, liberal demands not a significant threat.
• 1889 introduction of land captain gave power back to the nobles, noble representation increased to 57% in zemstva, electorate in St-Pberg reduced by 2/3

evidence to support the idea that the enforcement of russification in the short term ensure the assertion of the tsar's political authority, but in long term political authority of tsardom decreased since radicals were from areas oppressed.

• Poland's national bank closed in 1885 and Russian was made their national language, and 100,000 troops were permanently stationed in Poland
• this led to the creation of 2 socialist parties in 1892 supported by working class , Poland responsible for 25% empire industrial production
• nationalist uprisings in Armenia 1886 and Georgia 1892 were brutally crushed - but caused rise of socialists and populists linking social ideals to national freedom. Stalin from Georgia
• at least 200 pogroms 1881-83, 1892 jews lost right to vote in duma/zemstva elections- since one of assasinators of Alex 2 was jewish
• over 50% revolutionary leadership in 20th led by jews like Trotsky/Zinoviev

evidence to support the idea that the control of expression did not succeed in maintaining the political authority of Alex 3 leading to greater reliance on repressive measures.

• universities lost independence 1884 and meetings of more than 5 were banned since radicals originated for universities
• a committee of state censorship was created, banned 14 newspapers 1882-89 for liberal tendencies- preventing radical publishing
• But Emancipation of Labour group, 1883, smuggled in communist manifesto - first meeting broken up by Ohkrana with 5 leaders arrested out of 9 attendees
• People's Will reopened at St P-Berg university in 1886 led by Ulyanov, immediately closed down by Ohkrana who executed them.

argument on development of opposition and its efficacy under Alex 3 1881-1894

• strongest opposition to Alex 3 was urban opposition through zemstva and workers which was not effectively suppressed. Changing power balance of Tsar, not questioning his position
  -radical opposition while effectively suppressed in short term represented long term threat which increased as a result of treatment of imperial periphery opposition

• opposition from the imperial peripheries was crushed, but in long term they represented radical opposition

evidence to support the idea that the strongest opposition to Alex 3 came from workers and middle class in urban areas, but that it didn't pose a very significant threat overall to Alex 3

• workers in St P-Berg went on strike May Day 1891 calling for working conditions even though going on strike was illegal
• the middle class had grown to 500,000 so insignificant by 1890, but becoming increasingly discontented at tsar
• zemstva and duma as open talking shops had been mostly suppressed until 1890
• 1891/2 the zemstva were used to give aid during famine which was not provided by the tsar- 400,.000 people died, affected 17/39 provinces
• speeches calling for mass reform emerged from zemstva from 1892
  liberal reformism was significant to 1905 revolution and October manifesto which could have been tackled by Alex 3

evidence to support the idea that radical ideas were effectively oppressed for the most part under Alex 3 but that in the long term the ideologies were used against the tsardom

• people's will was temporarioly revived in 1886 at St P-Berg university, but was quickly closed down by Ohkrana who executed leaders- Ulyanov
• state committee on censorship ensure no slip-ups like the publishing of 'what is to be done' with 14 papers banned 1882-89
• universities lost their independence in 1884 and meeting of more than 5 university students were banned
• Emancipation of Labour was created in 1883 however by Plekhanov and smuggled in communist manifesto- potent in long run- insignificant here
  In long run, communist ideology had made its way into Russia which posed a big threat in the future

evidence to support the idea that imperial peripheries were crushed as opposition but that in the long term they strengthened radical ideas.

• Russia having 100,000 troops stationed in Poland, as a result of 1863, and enforcement of Russian in schools led to the creation of 2 socialist parties in 1892 supported by working class ,

• Poland responsible for 25% empire industrial production susceptible to socialism

• nationalist uprisings in Armenia 1886 and Georgia 1892 were brutally crushed - but caused rise of socialists and populists linking social ideals to national freedom. Stalin from Georgia

• at least 200 pogroms 1881-83, 1892 jews lost right to vote in duma/zemstva elections- since one of assassinators of Alex 2 was Jewish

• over 50% revolutionary leadership in 20th led by jews like Trotsky/Zinoviev
  His actions turned nationalities to radicalism

argument on economic development and change under Alex 3 1881-1894.

• the greatest success in terms of development was financially since foreign investment had been gained and this enabled industrialisation
• there was some success to industrialisation with heightened heavy good production however urban workforce was still limited
• agriculture did not modernise and despite the poor conditions, did not drive industrialisation

evidence to support the idea that financially Russia had developed and this provided the funding basis for industrialisation

• 1881 poll tax was abolished and taxation moved to private businesses and Russia's first inheritance tax
• Bunge, rouble fell in value since tsar wouldn't control military spending
• rouble stabilised with france agreeing loan in 1888 to be invested in infrastructure and industry.
  -by 1890 foreign investment was double the 1880 level at 250 million roubles
  -vyshnegradsky put tariffs on imports- 33% in 1891, in 5 years grain exports rose 18%
• all domestic sales of grain was taxed by vyshnegradsky caused discontent

evidence to support the idea that industrialisation took place to some extent, but was limited due to lack of workforce with majority in agriculture

• 1880-1913 proportion of the workforce working agriculture dropped from 74-72%
• even with incentivisation of workplace regulation which were introduced by Bunge controlling length of shifts
• Vyshnegradsky increased production of iron and coal which flourished
• 1892-1900 Russian economy grew on average of 8% a year
• oil production had trebled, iron doubled, coal quadrupled 1890-1910- the start was during Alex 3
• By 1890, over 1/3 of industrial workforce was a part of a company with more than 1000 employees
• class growth of 700,000 in 1865 to 1.4 million in 1890
• Moscow and St P-berg housed 1.8% of Russian population in 1890

evidence to support the idea that agriculture created some finances allowing industrialisation but not industrialisation in terms of workforce since workforce was limited and conditions for peasants were dire.

• Bunge reduced the size of land redemptions payments and cancelled arrears in 37 provinces
• 1883 opened a peasants bank but caused greater debt
• grain exports rise by 18% 1881-91 which meant by 1892 Russian budget had a surplus
• bad harvest of 1891 led to famine affecting 17/39 provinces, 400,000 died
• population growth reduced farm size from 35 acres in 1877 to 28 by 1905
• 1893 peasants have to pay taxes through their commune attaching them to one location
• 1893 only 800,000 peasants took up land in Western siberia so land hunger remained

argument on social/cultural change under Alex 3 1881-1894

• nobles regained some power lost and despite economic weakness through land loss, socially their power was strengthened
• middle and urban class lost some of its political power from reassertion of nobility, slowly becoming larger but peasants still restricted.
• the least amount of development happened to the peasantry since their conditions remained poor and land hunger was still rife- did not move into new industrial class

evidence to support the idea that nobles gained some of their previous power under Alex 3 despite still continuously being economically weakened through land lost.

• 1884 universities lost their independence and they were restricted to being noble only
• 1890 nobles gained 57% of power in the zemstva, making nobles hold overall power
• 1889 introduction of 'Land Captain' role which could only be held by nobles, overrule zemstva decisions and elections, conduct trials.
• 30% noble land sold 1861-1905 and a further 50% mortgaged.
  -Bunge reducing land redemption payments 1881, reduced noble income

evidence to support the idea that the middle and urban class was gradually beginning more prominent (long term) but lost power immediately in reaction to assassination

• class growth of 700,000 in 1865 to 1.4 million in 1890
• 1892 voting rules meant that working class were no longer able to vote in the zemstva.
• zemstva lost its right to appoint magistrates
• zemstva and duma however active in schools, healthcare and infrastructure in particular in 1891/92 famine where 400,000 died.
• work place regulations were introduced by Bunge imposing fines if regulations not met like length of shift
• first major strike too place in May 1891 in St P-Berg despite being illegal

evidence to support the idea that there was little change to status of the peasantry despite measures to aid them.

• peasants prevented from education with secondary school fee increase in 1887
• by 1895 there were fewer children in school than in 1882
• 1881 salt tax abolished by Bunge and reduced redemption payments and cancelled arrears in 37 provinces
• 1883 a peasants bank was opening to buy land, but it caused greater debt
• peasants famine 1891/2 where 400,000 died since all domestic sales being taxed by vyshnegradsky and grain exports had increased by 18%
• - population growth reduced farm size from 35 acres in 1877 to 28 by 1905
• 1893 only 800,000 peasants took up land in Western siberia so land hunger remained

argument on the development of radical groups- Marxism- under Alex 3 1881-1894

• Marxism posed no significant threat to Alex 3, but not effectively prevented so that it would not pose a threat in the future
  -1883, Russian translated communist manifesto smuggled into Russia, first Marxist group but very very very small and insignificant
• class growth of 700,000 in 1865 to 1.4 million in 1890 meant there were more people who could be susceptible to socialist ideals
• first major strike too place in May 1891 in St P-Berg despite being illegal- desire for social change- basis for a proletariat
• post crushing of rebellion in Georgia, social and political desires becoming more united with nationalism, Stalin from Georgia.

argument on political authority and governance under Nick 2 1894-1904

evidence to support the idea that tsarist political authority over the people had lessened and the bond between tsar and people was being questioned as a result of long term grievances.

• attempted to appease peasants, 1896 and 1899 many peasants had arrears on redemption payments cancelled
• 1896 policy encouraging resettlement to siberia failed- on 3.5 mill out of 97 mill peasants moved- land hunger remained
• 1903 mir lost tax collecting power and mir passports were abolished but did not have a profound impact
• 1903/04 labelled years of the red cockerel for arson on noble estates.- But this was more so noble not at tsar
• by 1905 peasants no longer complacent to tsar but have become politicised, all russian union of peasants may 8th 1905
• 17,000 strikes in 1894 and 90,000 in 1904, all illegal
• more importantly strikes in baku in 1903 started as general strike but became strike for nationalism against the tsar.

evidence to support the idea that the use of repression to assert tsarist authority had some level of success in tackling radical ideas but that it was flawed and could not prevent the tsarist authority deteriorating with people.

• 1882 Ohkrana opened 40,000 letters in russia, by 1904 it was checking 100,000 letters per year
• Agent provcateurs scheme under the Ohkrana failed to disperse radicalism. One example- Asef involved in 28 murders, including Von Plehve in 1904 and Tsar's uncle 1905
• head of police force 1902-05 Lopukin said these methods were distancing people from the tsar
• 1900 Ohkrana scheme under Zubatov to organise police controlled unions. 1903 failed when a 'loyal' union went on strike at port of Odessa
• Idea revived in St P-Berg in 1904, led by Father Gapon, Assembly of St P-Berg factory workers had 8000 members at end of 1904- he was significant for 1905

evidence to support the idea that the assertion of political authority through Russification emphasised the attack on jews and the forced orthodoxy of other peripheries

• in long term push them to radical ideas.

• Finland constitution abolished in 1899, Russian Governor to Finland assassinated in 1904
• Ohkrana channelled funds to Pan Slavic and Anti-Semitic groups like the Black Hundreds
• forced Orthodoxy was accelerated in Armenia, Poland, Ukraine and Baltic.
• 1902 Ohkrana funded the publication of ' Protocols of the Elders of Zion' which proposed a jewish takeover of world
• mass pogroms in 1903 and 1905- Kishinev Bessarabia, in 2 days 47 murdered and 700 houses burned
• 1901-1903 Jews accounted for 29% of all political criminals, rose to 53% 1903-1904
• Jews accounted for 50% membership to all over Russia's revolutionary groups
• Georgian, Joseph Stalin join revolutionary group in 1899

argument on development of opposition and its efficacy under Nick 2 1894-1904

• liberal opposition posed to the greatest threat directly to the tsardom and the nick 2 given the growth of liberal demands nationally- actually tried to go to Nick to propose change.
• radical opposition- Social Democrats, existed by during this time period very limited threat to Nick 2, Social Revolutionaries posed a threat to structure of Russia but not directly to Nick 2
• Social opposition, not interested in the overthrow of tsardom but socio-economic change to improve conditions- not politicised at this period.

evidence to support the idea that liberal opposition was growing in prevalence and represented a genuine threat to the position of Nick 2 1894-1904

• 1904, the middle class was still around 1 million people.
• in 1895, group of zemstva representatives requested national assembly, Pobedonostev called it a 'senseless dream'
• a national congress of zemstva presidents met 1896/97 but it was promptly banned
• 1902 Union of Liberation party formed in Berlin, print newspaper called Liberation
• 1904 the Union of Liberation moved to St P-Berg and avoided Ohkrana by hosting banquets
• Nov 1904, a national meeting of zemstva presidents which Ohkrana knew about but didn't break up for fear of unrest- Eleven Theses Petition discussed at banquets
  -Dec 1904 Tsar responds to liberals with imperial manifesto rejecting a national assembly.

evidence to support the idea that radical opposition posed more of a threat to the upper echelons of society than directly Nick. Because SR's posed greater threat, suppressed more where SD's remained constant.

• 1898 Russian Social Democrat Labour Party created, at first meeting 5/9 attendees arrested by Ohkrana
• 1900, the illegal newspaper Spark begins
• 1902 Lenin writes 'What is to be done' pamphlet calling for small ideologically motivated network
• 1903 party split- Bolsheviks, Lenin, Mensheviks Martov
• 1897-1905 Lenin imprisoned, exiled or overseas
  SR's
• formed 1901, wanted to radicalise peasantry, weaken tsardom
  -agitated Baku oil and Poland industrial strikes
• Combat section killed Education Minisiter 1901, Minister of Interior 1902 and Plehve 1904
• twice 1901-1904 ohkrana arrested entire leadership
• head of combat section 1903-05 secret policeman, arrested hundreds but killed 28 officials.

evidence to support the idea that social opposition was not motivated by a political desire to attack tsardom but the desire to improve socio-economic conditions. Radical/Liberal groups did not initially politicise this group

argument on economic development and change under Nick 2 1894-1914

• greatest development seen through mass industrialisation by Witte, aided by Stolypin which changed significantly Russian industry- funded by finances but this area marked greatest change
• financially, a level of consistency in increasing funding, financial policies on peasant intended to help peasantry, provided funding to enable mass industrialisation
• agriculturally, the issue of land hunger still remained, the developments made were insignificant to the scale of the peasant population.
  Ultimately WW1 undermined all progress made.

evidence to support the idea that the greatest economic development under Nick 2 was the level of industrialisation which made the most of increasing labour and funding.

• by 1914 Russia 5th largest industrial economy
• economy grew by 8% a year 1892-1900
• by 1905, 60,000 km of raillway laid
• 1896-1900 3000km of railway laid per year
• 1890-1910 iron tripled, oil trebled, coal quadrupled
• industrial population 4% of population 1897 to 12% by 1914
  -in 1912, a quarter of russia's land mass represented 91% of its industrial economy
• no welfare state, British workers twice as productive
• 1908-1913 industrial growth at 8% per year
• 1908-1914 2.5-2.9 million workers
• railway at 70,000 km in 1913

evidence to support the idea that despite the economic crisis 1900-1906 financial policy provided consistency needed to enable industrialisation to take place

• 25% of tsar's state revenues came from industrial investments 1903-1913
• 1900-1905 economic depression which slowed growth and reduced investment
• 1897 rouble was stabilised and backed by gold
• foreign investment rose from 215 million in 1890 to 2 billion by 1914
• investment capital created by Witte by increasing import tarrifs
  -1908-1914 state revenue grew from 2.4 billion roubles
• 1908-1914 number of banks grew from 1146-2393

evidence to support the idea that land hunger still remained and peasants were still attached to old ways despite reforms which seemed to only impact the minority.

• 1910 agriculture made up 70% of economy and 80% of employment
• production low- 1898-1902 average russian acre produce 8.8 bushels vs 13.9 in America and 35.4 in Britain
• grain production rose from 74 mill tonnes in 1900 to 90 in 1913
• 1907 law peasants leave commune, by 1914 25% of peasants left communes
• successful kulaks made up 1% of 97 mill peasants in 1914
• by 1914 90% of farms used inefficient strip farming
• 50% of land still in hands of nobility by 1914
• 5% of peasants making a profit by 1914
• population 125 mill in 1900 to 159 mill by 1913- even if 140 mill acre of noble land distributed land hunger would remain

argument on social/cultural change under Nick 2 1894-1917

-WW1 caused significant changes to urban middle and working class as well as the peasantry.

• the middle and upper classes experienced the most change since the middle class gained significant power and prevalence as well as gaining in numbers
• second most change, industrial workers, continuity of poor conditions and lack of welfare state for workers but, increased in number significantly, became more keen to express grievances exacerbated by WW1
• peasantry despite change to reliance on them during WW1 and a minority profiting, peasantry remained without status and land hunger continued.

evidence to support the idea that middle and upper classes experienced the most social change under Nick 2 with the power shift to the middle class which gained significant power, even more so shown through WW1

• by 1905, nobles had lost 1/3 of their 1861 land holdings
• by 1904, fewer than 1 million middle class Russians
• noble political power enhanced by Stolypin with 1907 electoral change
• nobility less loyal to tsar, United Nobility opposition meeting 1906
• number of doctors rose 17,000 to 28,000 1897-1914
• association of industry and trade created in 1906, led by businessmen
• Prince Lvov chaired Zemgor from 1914 providing welfare support
• 1915 congress representitives of business and industry formed to resolve supply issues
• Aug 1915 Nick recalled progressive bloc demanding tsar create 'government of public confidence'
• Nick suspended this group but they continued parliament

evidence to support the idea that there was significant growth to the industrial working class in terms of numbers and their political voice, but they continued to suffer from lack of welfare state which was worsened by WW1.

• 4% of population in 1897 but 12% by 1914
• 1908/9 in St P-Berg 30,000 people died of cholera
• 1900-1908 relative working wages fell
• in 1900 moscow was overrun with farm animals
• 17,000 strikes in 1894, 90,000 in 1904
• 6 million urban workers by 1913
• 1912 Lena Goldfields Massacre, strike against eating horse meat, 500 killed
• 1917 less than 10% got minimum wage of 200 roubles per month
• prices increased 400% 1914-1917
• 1 million workers strike in 1916, 14th feb 1917 100,000 workers strike in St P-Berg

evidence to support the idea that despite the reforms put on the peasantry and the reliance on the peasantry during WW1, their social position did not change they still suffered from land hunger.

• crop failures in 1898 and 1901 killed tens of thousands
  -from 1893 peasants had to pay their taxes through commune so couldn't get own farm
• mir passports abolished in 1903
• 1914 60% of peasants were literate, 20% in 1850s
• kulaks only made up 1% of 97 million peasants by 1914
  -90% of farms still used inefficient strip farming
• population 125 mill in 1900 to 159 mill by 1913- even if 140 mill acre of noble land distributed land hunger would remain
• 1914-18 15 million peasants were conscripted
• grain hoarding from 1916, harvest taken to market 25% to 10% 1913-17

argument on the rise of Marxism under Nick 2 1894-1917

• Marxism 1894-1914- it existed as an ideology, not a vast movement, it had little overall impact on the tsardom and the split in 1903
  -Marxism 1914-1917- it grew in prevalence and in power, ultimately marxism never gained a true democratic majority. Supporters for the most part not ideologically motivated.

evidence to support the idea that Marxism between 1894-1914 was not effectively suppressed since it continued to exist as a ideology that was very very slowly beginning to gain prevalence.

• 1895-1905 Lenin either in exile, overseas or abroad

• 1898 Russian Social Labour Party formed
  -1903 party split into Bolsheviks, lenin, and Mensheviks, Martov, which weakened the overall force of marxism

• Bolsheviks were involved in strikes in 1905 but no way crucial, they did not have significant power with regards to the October manifesto

• Nov 1905 Lenin returned and organised the 'December Days' which caused strike in Moscow but led to the shelling of working class neighbourhoods

• 1906 Bolsheviks boycotted the first duma, but were part of 65 SD's in 2nd Duma. Stolypin reforms made SD's irrelevant in 3rd and 4th dumas.

• The 1905 legislation in trade unions provided Bolsheviks with a way to influence workers.

• April 1912, Bolshevik newspaper Pravda launched
  -1912-14 strikers were not ideologically motivated.

evidence to support the idea that Marxism between 1914-1917 grew in power and gained support but even after the Oct Revolution they did not command a majority and most of supporters did not actually believe in Marxist ideology.

• 1914 Bolsheviks arrested as the only party to oppose WW1 from the start.
• 1915 500 Bolsheviks in Petrograd, 3000 by 1916 and 10,000 nationwide in 1916
• Trotsky, head of military revolutionary committee, from Oct 9 1917 support from 200,000 red guards, 60,000 baltic sailors and 150,000 petrograd soldiers. By Oct 23rd 15/18 moscow army units
• Lenin, 10 oct 1917, agreed a vote in Bolshevik Central Committee 10:2 to have uprising
• Feb 1917 bolshevik support 23,000 but oct 1917 membership at 200,000
• June 1917, 11% duma vote, sept 1917 51% duma vote, nov 12 1917 bolsheviks secure 175/410 constituent assembly seats
• Kornilov Affair, July/Aug 1917, led to armament of 40,000 bolshevik dominated red guards- after affair rise in trench bolshevism desertions reach tens of thousands a day

argument on political authority and governance under Lenin 1917-1924

-Ultimately did the population actually believe in the ideology

• unlikely, they protested when living conditions were bad not when ideology changed or was not easily upheld.
• the use of terror most significantly asserted the political authority with lenin as it was able to crush opostion and assert the prevalence of bolshevism, had greatest success in gaining authority
• opposition within the party took place since there was a partocracy and not a personal dictatorship. Marxism had political authority, but Lenin didn't always. Repressive measures within party were effective.
• opposition outside of the party posed little real threat the the political authority of lenin or Marxism, the civil war was greatest threat but it was won by Lenin and people care for their living conditions.

evidence to support the idea that the use of terror sufficiently suppressed the opposition which arose and asserted the authority of lenin and of the bolshevik takeover in Russia.

• cheka created in December 1917 to remove 'all enemies of the revolution'
  -during civil war, Trotsky hired 50,000 ex-tsarist officers who, if they did not fight, would have their families killed
• Trotsky created special units within army during civil war who would shoot deserters
• between 1920-22 mensheviks were destroyed with Martov sent on exile and 5000 being arrested
• 1922, 11 SR's put on trial for threatening to assasinate Lenin, all were executed, BUT Fanny Kaplan who wounded Lenin was an SR
• Poison gas was used against the Tambov uprising as well as 100,000 troops

evidence to support the idea that opposition within the party posed a personal threat to lenin through open conversation and divisions in the party, but lenin in a reactionary way implemented measures to assert his authority.

• Nov 4th 1917 Sovnarkom could pass laws without the consent of the congress of soviets
• 1919/20 Alexander Kollontai criticised lack of democracy in party and lack of power given to workers.
• Ban on Factions in 1921 banned disagreement in the party once it had been voted on- enforced authority to party policy.
• 1921 150,000 party members were purged from the party
• Nomenklatura 1923, Central Committee of Communist party control 5500 appointments creating a new party elite, got rid of any opposition
  -debate over economic policy-NEP implemented in 1921, zinoviev and kamenev wanted to use grain conscription whereas Bukharin wanted the continuation of the NEP- questioning policy not authority.

evidence to support the idea that social opposition, following lenin's win in the civil war, did not pose a significant threat to lenin's authority with opposition occurring for socio-economic conditions.

• at height of civil war whites had 650,000 soldiers, compared to 1 million red soldiers by jan 1920

• 1920, Tambov, 70,000 person pesants uprising crushed by 100,000 troops- war was making living conditions worse

• 1920, also uprising of 60,000 in Caucuses in response to drought of 1920/21 causing 2 million to starve in 1920

• 30,000 krondstadt sailors wanted an end to communism, cheka arrested 15,000 and the leaders were shot as 'white traitors'

• Georgia's demands for independence were brutally crushed by Stalin in 1922, despite lenin allowing nations to self determine with decree on nationalities

argument on development of opposition and its efficacy under Lenin 1917-1924

• social opposition was effectively suppressed by Lenin despite how widespread the opposition was it did not threaten marxism or have any ideologically motivation- it was reactionary to the economic conditions.
• political opposition posed more of a personal threat to lenin and to his principles, however not the prevalence of marxist leadership in the ussr.

evidence to support the idea that social opposition posed some threat to lenin personally but that this opposition was centred around socio-economic conditions as opposed to having an ideological motivation to revolt.

• Feb 1921 bread ration cut by 1/3 and mass striking occurred- martial law was declared in jan 1921 so that opposition could easily be suppressed
• at height of civil war whites had 650,000 soldiers, compared to 1 million red soldiers by jan 1920
• 1920, Tambov, 70,000 person pesants uprising crushed by 100,000 troops- war was making living conditions worse
• 1920, also uprising of 60,000 in Caucuses in response to drought of 1920/21 causing 2 million to starve in 1920
• 30,000 krondstadt sailors wanted an end to communism, cheka arrested 15,000 and the leaders were shot as 'white traitors'
• Georgia's demands for independence were brutally crushed by Stalin in 1922- 12,000 killed, 20,000 exiled, despite lenin allowing nations to self determine with decree on nationalities

evidence to support the idea that political opposition to lenin was in opposition to lenist policies and lenin himself for the most part as opposed to the idea of marxism overall.

-political outside of party

• between 1920-22 mensheviks were destroyed with Martov sent on exile and 5000 being arrested
• 1922, 11 SR's put on trial for threatening to assassinate Lenin, all were executed, BUT Fanny Kaplan who wounded Lenin was an SR and wasn't suppressed effectively
• Jan 5 1918, constituent assembly did not agree with lenin's decrees so he ended the assembly and bolsheviks walked out, 12 were shot
  political within party
  -debate over economic policy-NEP implemented in 1921, zinoviev and kamenev wanted to use grain conscription whereas Bukharin wanted the continuation of the NEP- questioning policy not authority.- supressed through ban on factions of 1921
• 1919/20 Alexander Kollontai criticised lack of democracy in party and lack of power given to workers- suppressed with ban on factions and purge of 150,000 members of the party.

argument on economic development and change under Lenin 1917-1924

-economic development burdened by the impacts of ww1 and the civil war. The economic development attempting to balance socialist ideals alongside pragmatic policy to improve the economy. All areas marked by failure.

• agriculture most significant failure as it caused greater opposition to lenin as well as being responsible for the lack of industrial productivity since the workers did not have their workers paradise to be motivated by.
• as result of the lack of motivation industrial production failed which ensured that a worker's paradise could not be created since production was low.
• the failure to create a worker's paradise significant ideologically but have never previously existed. As a result of lack of agricultural sustainability and lack of industrialisation need to fund better working conditions.

evidence to support the idea that agriculture was the greatest failure under lenin both practically and ideologically since the workforce could not be fed to increase industrialisation and no worker's paradise seemed viable to be established.

• oct 27th 1917, decree on land, abolition of private ownership- peasants land grab- not socialist or economically practical
• through brest-litovsk treaty 3rd march 1918 1/3 of agricultural production was lost
• grain requisitioning policy, spring of 1918 'grain crisis', May 1918 soldiers used to ensure grain was given up to the state
• in response, 1/3 land abandonned by 1920 and animals slaughtered
• harvest 1921 48% of 1913 level
• drought of 1920 led to 2 million starving
• 1920, green army of 70,000 assembles at Tambov
• NEP peasants allowed to sell excess for profit but failed since 1921 famine killed 5 million
  BUT minority being NEP men flourished by selling industrial goods in countryside

evidence to support the idea that industrialisation failed under lenin as a result of the implications of ww1 and civil war and socialist policy failed to ideologically motivate the starving workforce.

-Without increased industrial output increasing economy, no worker's paradise could be achieved.

• nov 1917 decree on factory hierarchy, abolished factory management but workers stole rubber from conveyers to make shoes
• 3 march 1918 brest-litovsk, lost 26% railway and 74% of iron supply
• nov 1920 role of factory manager reinstated, since production at 20% of pre civil war levels
• 1921 heavy industry 1/5 of the 1913 level
• 1921 working population was 1/3 of the 1917 level
• 1925 pay for metal workers and miners lower than 1914 level
• scissors crisis of 1923, ratio of industrial to agricultural production at 3 times 1913 level

evidence to support the idea that a worker's paradise was unviable practically and ideologically since a worker's paradise had never existed in Russia so there was no motivation to create one.

• in theory, nov 1917 abolition of factory hierarchy, however failed since it was revoked in nov 1920 as a result of poor production levels
• 3 million died of typhus in 1920, petrograd was 57.5% smaller in 1920 than in 1917
  • by 1918, rations in petrograd at 50g of bread per day
• feb 1921, bread ration reduced by 1/3 causing industrial unrest and calls for trade unions which was responded to by martial law.

argument on social/cultural change under Lenin 1917-1924

• greatest change to place to the role of women and family under lenin with a greater emphasis on work detatching from the traditional ideals about the role of women during the tsardom
• significant change took place in the abolition of the hierarchy by reducing nobility but soviet elite began to be established through top- down politics and the creation of Nepmen
• great level of continuation for the role of the proletariat who continued to suffer, even with the promise of a worker's paradise and a political voice.

evidence to support the idea that the most change place to the role of women and family which was less so emphasised by instead emphasising the equality of women by women also having to work.

• Dec 1917 decree on marriage to enforce civil marriage meant church was detached from marriage
• nov 1917, sexual discrimation was banned and women could own property
• alexander kollontai was appointed as people's commissar of social welfare
• congress of women workers in nov 1917, with 1147 delegates present
• 1920 abortion was legalised, by 1923 2.9 abortions per birth
• girls given same educational rights as boys

evidence to support the idea that the abolition of the class hierarchy aided in the social restructuring of the USSR however, by using top

-down politics a new elite at the top of the partocracy was beginning to be established.

• nov 1917 decree on factory hierarchy got rid of management systems in factories
• the whites fighting in the war lost- could only raise 650,000 soldiers total where bolsheviks had 1 million by 1920
• nobility and the bourgeoisie were given 'menial tasks' and often starved.
• grain requisitioning during civil meant kulaks were attacked as 'enemies of the people'
  BUT
  -7-9 member poltiburo made majority of decisions by 1920
• 1922 role of the general secretary given personal power to stalin as member of politburo and sovnarko,
• nov 1920 role of factory manager reinstated
• NEPmen profiting from selling industrial goods in countryside
• 1920 alexander kollontain criticise Lenin for party-worker inequality

evidence to support the idea that the emphasised role of the proletariat failed to be established and socially no worker's paradise was established which glorified the role of the worker and provided good working conditions.

• in theory, nov 1917 abolition of factory hierarchy, however failed since it was revoked in nov 1920 as a result of poor production levels
• 3 million died of typhus in 1920, petrograd was 57.5% smaller in 1920 than in 1917
  • by 1918, rations in petrograd at 50g of bread per day
• feb 1921, bread ration reduced by 1/3 causing industrial unrest and calls for trade unions which was responded to by martial law.
• 1921 working population was 1/3 of the 1917 level
• 1925 pay for metal workers and miners lower than 1914 level

argument on Lenin's establishment of a Marxist society 1917-1924

-overall a failure to effectively meet any of the goals of a marxist society

• most significant failure to the creation of a marxist society was the failed establishment of a marxist economy to extent, with turning point of NEP that it took on capitalist tendencies.
• the role of government had to pretence of being politically emphasising the worker's to some extent, however the power was held top-down which was not as marx had imagined.
• most success took place socially however was also limited- equality more so established between workers, but unified suffering and no worker's paradise

evidence to support the idea that a marxist economy totally failed to be established since when attempts were made to create a socialist economy this failed drastically and led to capitalist tendencies

• however some level of centralisation.

• nov 1920 role of factory manager reinstated, since production at 20% of pre civil war levels
• 1921 heavy industry 1/5 of the 1913 level
• 1921 working population was 1/3 of the 1917 level
• 3 march 1918 brest-litovsk, lost 26% railway and 74% of iron supply
• harvest 1921 48% of 1913 level
• drought of 1920 led to 2 million starving
• during NEP from Aug 1921, private trade was restored, no longer state monopolies put on mid-level businesses
• Dec 1919, Veshenka created as council of national economy
• nov 1920 nearly all factories and businesses nationalised.

evidence to support the idea that Lenin's government had some levels of success through centralisation, but failed to create a marxist political system which was bottom

-up giving power to the workers.

Successes

• in the congress of soviets, worker votes weighted at 5:1 vs peasants and old elite had no vote.
• marxism had been maintained as a system, winning of the civil war in 1920 asserted the strength of the marxist government
• in theory the practice of 'democratic centralism', voting from bottom up, all party membership able to work their way from bottom up
  However
• ban on factions 1921, enabled a dictatorship- Stalin-, top down power since political opposition not allowed once voting had taken place.
• Nomenklatura 1923, Central Committee of Communist party control 5500 appointments creating a new party elite, got rid of any opposition- very top down power

evidence to support the idea that marx's goal of equality between workers were somewhat met by Lenin however there was also universal suffering and a lack of a worker's paradise established

• worker's conditions had by no means improved.

equality between workers

• Dec 1917 decree on marriage to enforce civil marriage meant church was detached from marriage
• education was made accessible to workers
  universal suffering for workers
• 3 million died of typhus in 1920, petrograd was 57.5% smaller in 1920 than in 1917
  • by 1918, rations in petrograd at 50g of bread per day
• feb 1921, bread ration reduced by 1/3 causing industrial unrest and calls for trade unions which was responded to by martial law.
• 1921 working population was 1/3 of the 1917 level

argument on political authority and governance under Stalin 1924-41

-Ultimately Stalin asserted total political authority by end of this period.

• most significant political authority created through the use of repression and terror which suppressed all opposition- but for stalin as unquestioned leader.
• stalin was not always unquestioned leader, once he was dictator who could enact repression- not total authority throughout the whole time period.
• least significant was authority over nationalities since it represents an example of the repression enacted and took place with stalin exercised personal authority over nationalities even before this time period.

evidence to support the idea that political authority was most clearly asserted through the use of oppression and terror since it ensured stalin was the dictator of the USSR and that outward appearances expressed support.

• stalin's purges of the 1930's had over 50% of its executions being kulaks
• 20,000 killed in 1930 for resisting collectivisation policy
• 350,000 killed in 1937 alone
• 1928, 53 engineers show trial for low production- 5 executed and 44 in gulags
• july 1937, politburo made a list of 250,000 artists/writers/scientists to be arrested
• number of gulag inmates rose by 500,000 1937-39
• during great terror 1936-38 750,000 were killed
• 2/3 of 1.3 million in gulags in great terror labelled as 'political criminals'

evidence to support the idea that stalin through this time period was not always the unquestioned leader of the USSR within the communist party prior to his ability to enact terror

• not total political authority across the whole of the time period.

• by 1924, stalin not sole leader- in 1926 got rid of Zinoviev and Kamenev accusing of factionalism

• by nov 1929, Bukharin had been removed from the politburo leaving stalin as undisputed leader
  BUT

• 1930 Bukharin elected to central committee against stalin

• 1932 Ryutin Platform, urging removal of stalin and politburo initially did not allow Ryutin execution

• 1934 150 delegates voted against stain but 3 votes were counted
  LEADING TO

• 2/3 of 71 members of 1934 central committee shot

• 1108/1966 delegates of 1934 party conference shot

evidence to support the idea that the repression of nationalities marks an example of the use of repression making it less significant and evidence stalin's personal political authority since he acts on nationalities before 1924.

• Feb 1921 Stalin organised an invasion of Georgia despite the sovnarkom recognising its independence in 1920
• Aug 1924 Georgia independence uprising crushed by Cheka killing 12,000
• a jewish homeland created in east 1926, 50,000 moved there
• 1932 holomodor in ukraine, killed 7-10 million
• mass dekulakisation was non targeted, 1.9 million deported 1931-32, made up of nationalities
• 1936 stalin constitution increased centralisation
• july 1937, 1720,000 koreans deported for disloyalty
• great terror, 350,000 ethnic minorities on trial, 140,000 poles in 1939.

argument on development of opposition and its efficacy under Stalin 1924-41

-

arguments on causes of 1905 revolution

-

argument on causes of Feb 1917 revolution

argument on causes of Oct 1917 revolution

QUESTION OF NATIONALITIES UNDER LENIN,STALIN,KHRUSHCHEV

argument for economic development under Stalin 1924-1953

argument for social and cultural change under Stalin 1924-1953

argument for development of ideology/communism under Stalin 1924-1953

argument for political change under Khrushchev 1953-1964

argument for opposition under Khrushchev 1953-1964

argument for economic development under Khrushchev 1953-1964

argument for social and cultural change under Khrushchev 1953-1964

argument for ideology/communism under Khrushchev 1953-1964