Criminology Final

Contemporary Sociological Theories of Crime

Beyond theories about neighborhood, blocked aspirations, associations, and broken bonds, other sociological theories about crime emerged since the 1950s. These other crimes focus on societal reactions, how people think about crime, the overpowering influence of the economy, and a fuller array of strains that pressure people.

The Emergence of “Labeling Theory”

Instead of background causes, now shift to the societal reaction of the auidence and agents of social control; what comes after crime. Main thing that sets “criminals” apart from everyone else is that they are identified and tagged as “criminals”. Once labeled, people may begin to see themselves accordingly and reorganize how they think about themselves.

Three concepts that capture the consequences of labeling

Secondary Deviance (Edwin Lemert), Master Status, Role Engulfment (Edwin Schur).

Secondary Deviance (Edwin Lemert)

Any criminal behavior or rule-breaking that is an adjustment to being labeled; where people reorganize their lives and self-concept around a labeled status.

Master Status

Social identity that overrides all other identities one holds; “criminal” identity becomes the first thing others think about a person.

Role Engulfment (Edwin Schur)

Internal feeling that the attached label is inescapable; where people feel trapped in how others define them.

Main solution to crime was “Radical nonintervention” (Edwin Schur)

For lesser or victimless crimes attaching a legal lavel may do more harm than good.

Neutralization/Drift Theory

Crime is something that most offenders drift in and out of; people do not deviate all the time, just sometimes when it suits them. People know the difference between right and wrong; people vacillate between conventional morality and thinking “bad” behavior is okay.

Five original techniques of neutralizations

Denial of Responsibility, Denial of Injury, Denial of the Victim, Condemnation of the Condemners, Appeal to Higher Loyalties.

Denial of Responsibility

Wrongful conduct is the result of other things; not my fault; (ex. its okay to cheat on a test because I had to work instead of studying)

Denial of Injury

No one will really be hurt; (ex. its okay to steal from a store because no one is really going to be personally harmed by what I do)

Denial of the Victim

Everyone gets what they deserve; (ex. its okay to rob people who flaunt their cash because they are asking for trouble)

Condemnation of the Condemners

Those who accuse others of wrongdoing do worse things themselves (ex. its okay to speed because police speed all the time)

Appeal to Higher Loyalties

Helping friends is more important than following the law; (ex. I have to fight alongside my buddy even though he is causing problems)

Institutional Anomie Theory (IAT)

Crime is different and unique in America; there is a dangerous, unrestrained, anything goes quality to crime . At the same time, we have a deep belief in individualism, every person for themselves, make it or dont make it on your own.

Decommodification

To fix the crime problem, need to reprioritize that other things in life are more important than $$$.

General Strain Theory (GST)

There are other condition or events that is unpleasant, unwanted, disliked beyond goal blockage and people adjust to this differently. Female cope by turning anger inward, males by turning it outward, the latter is more likely to lead to crime.

Strain

Condition or event that is unpleasant, unwanted, disliked.

Multiple sources of strain influence behavior

Loss of Something Valued, Negative Treatment by Others, Failure to Achieve Desired Goals.

Loss of Something Valued

Ex. Parents divorce, friend or pet dies, breakup of relationship.

Negative Treatment by Others

Ex. Having a mean teacher, being bullied, social exclusion.

Failure to Achieve Desired Goals

Ex. Unemployment, poor grades that limit college opportunity; not receiving a living wage.

Casual Sequence

Strains (different types) → Negative emotions (anger, depression) → Poor coping (inability to adjust) → Delinquency, crime (fighting, theft, stealing)

The New (Radical) Criminology

Critized the labeling approach for ignoring class structure; labeling theory did not consider how power structures make some more vulnerable to labeling.

Two main classes in capitalist society

Bourgeoisie, Proletariat

Bourgeoisie

Capitalists or owners of the “means of production;” the ruling class; make money by generating profiles and accumulating wealth from surplus value.

Proletariat

Workers, paid a wage or a salary, who staff and operate the means of production for the bourgeoisie; called the revolutionary class and the exploited class.

Other classes Marx discussed

Petty Bourgeoisie, Lumpenproletariat

Petty Bourgeoisie

Self-employed who run solo or small businesses.

Lumpenproletariat

The “underclass;” people outside the productive realm of the legitimate economy; people in crime found in this group.

Managerial Class

Work for the capitalists and have the authority to hire and fire but do not own the means of production.

Ruling class controls what society defines a crime

Mainly the behavior of the poor, is influenced most by those with wealth (ex. Anthony Platt, the child savers - concept of delinqueny and juvenile court created by entrepreneurs in chicago).

Application of the law favors elite over the poor

There are tow systems of justice; the rich are treated very differently than the poor; (ex. Jeffrey Reiman - the rich get richer and the poor get prison).

Pressure towards crime is result of class polarization

Pulling apart of the classes; wealth and power are increasingly concentrated in the hands of the few; inequality continues to increase.

“Primitive Rebellion Hypothesis”

Individuals will commit crime if feel repressed, trapped, pushed by the class structure.

All people do crime in relation to class position

While pressure towards crime is greatest for these who have less, crime occurs at all levels.

Richard Quinney identified three forms of crime resulting from pressures of inequality

Crimes of Accommodation, Crimes of Resistance, Crimes of Domination

Crimes of Accommodation

For survival (ex. theft, robbery, drug dealing).

Crimes of Resistance

In defiance of existing structures of authority (ex. computer hackers; destroying government property, eco-crimes like cutting down billboards).

Crimes of Domination

To perpetuate power and wealth (ex. insider trading, price fixing)

“Alienation” can erode emotional well-being

Loss of meaning; begins when seperated from the product of what produce; may be present among some who commit serious violence or suicide.

Feminist Theory of Patriarchal Authority

Masculinization Hypothesis (Freda Adler), Emancipation Hypothesis (Rita Simon), Marginalization Hypothesis.

Masculinization Hypothesis (Freda Adler)

As females assume roles once held largely by males, they will become more like males. (e.g., more aggressive and violent).

Emancipation Hypothesis (Rita Simon)

As opportunities in legitimate work open, so too will opportunities in illicit work (ex. insider trading, workplace theft).

Marginalization Hypothesis

As more women live independently from men, poverty will increase and crimes of survival will increase (ex. prostitution, theft).

Women live in a patriarchal world

Men control more resources and power and thus the social conditions under which women live.

Patriarchy leads to objectification

Women are treated as possessions, as things that men control.

Objectification leads to victimization

Men who treat women as objects are more likely to exploit them, to commit domestic and sexual violence.

Women are much more likely to be sexually victimized

Sexual abuse rates growing up are shockingly high for females.

Victimization leads to crimes of survival

Girls and young women become trapped and may flee their homes and live on the streets.

Power Control Theory

Position in the workplace influences strucutrre of authority in the home.

Patriarchal family structure

Father works outside the home but mother does not; father has more power within the home; this structure grants more freedom to boys, but exerts more repressive control over daughters.

Egalitarian family structure

Both father and mother work outside the home; power is more equal between parents; sons and daughters are raised more equally; repressive control of daughters in family structure is less.

Family delinquency higher for daughters in egalitarian structure

Risk-taking is permitted more equally for both girls and boys by parents and thus delinquency for girls becomes more likely.

Staying Alive Hypothesis

An evolutionary argument to explain why females tend to stay out of crime and are less violent than males - Evolutionary consequence is brains of males and females are wired differently.

Murder

Killing of another human being unlawfully with malice; meaning with “wicked heart”, “evil mind”, or “depraved indifference” (Extreme cruelty).

1st Degree Murder

Premeditation (advanced planning) and deliberation (weighing gains vs costs) - Ex) Killing via the use of poison, killing by lying in wait.

2nd Degree Murder

Purposeful killling but absent any planning or forethought- Ex) Combatants in a street fight; some road rage killings.

Voluntary Manslaughter

Killing that involves a reduced state of mind or extenuating circumstances - in the sudden heart of passion - Ex) Catching spouse in a sexual act with someone else.

Aggravated Assault

Attack committed with a deadly weapon or for the purpose of inflicting grave bodily injury - Ex) Someone who is attacked with a bat or firearm.

Simple Assault

Physical attack without a weapon that results in minor injury - Ex) Being grabbed, pushed, spit-on during an argument; the chew incident.

Murder Rate in the U.S.

Peak year of murder nationwide 1980 at 10.2 / 100,000. 2022 - 6.3

Recent Trents in Homicide for the Nation

Murder increased by ovver 35% between the low in 2014 and the recent peak in 2021, Murder decreased about 8% between 2021 and 2022.

Types of Weapon in Homicide Cases

Over 7:10 murders in 2022 occured with a firearm, Most common firearm in a homicide is a handgun, Firearm is more likely in homicide committed by males, teenagers, gang members, strangers. 1:12 killings in 2022 occurred with a knife, Killing by poison, suffocation, strangulation or drowning are comparatively uncommon.

Data on Aggravated Assault for U.S.

Has been 42-52x greater than murder rate between 2014 and 2022 depending on the year.

Type of Weapon in Aggravated Assault Cases

Most common are commited with firearm, by personal means about 1:5 by hand, fist, or feet as in choking, punching, kicking, stomping.

Other Facts and Figures about Homicide and Assault

Majority of killings and AA’s are committed by offenders acting alone, Victims of AA are much more likely to be attacked inside a residence rather than on the street.

Demography of Murder

Mostly male 17-34 attacking male20-39 in cities.

Victim - Offender Relationship

Acquaintance (3:10) , Familial (1:10) , Stranger (1:10 ) , Unknown (1:2).

“Character Contest” Killings

Arguments over money, infidelity, territory, possessions, Attempts to save face by standing ground

Victim Precipitation (Marvin Wolfgang)

Where the person killed, by insult or use of force, starts things.

Gang Related Killings

They are “interstitial” groups, Emerge in poverty (though they do not all come from impoverished backgrounds), Other defining characteristics: top-down structure, method of recruitment, organized towards crime, homogenous in race and gender, viewed as a gang by people in community.

Felony Murder/Assault

Attacks or killings during the commission of another felony, Occur during drug transactions (most common), robbery, burglary, arson, sex crimes, Considered among the most cold-blooded murder.

Multicide

Killing of 3+ victims.

Mass Murder

One time and place or one continous event.

Spree Murder

Within 30 days usually with other crimes.

Serial Murder

More than 30 days with cooling off periods.

Types of Serial Killers (Holmes and Deburger)

Vision, Mission, Hedonistic, Power Control.

Vision Serial Killer

Psychotic, kills because commanded by voices.

Mission Serial Killer

Disturbed belief system aimed at cleansing the world of a group of people.

Hedonistic Serial Killer

Killers who kill for lust, thrill, or comfort.

Power-Control Serial Killer

Enjoys dominantion over a helpless person.

Hate Crime Violence

Most common hate offenses: intimidation, property destruction, simple assault, Most frequent perpetrators of hate bias crimes: White, Most common types of bias motivation: Anti-Black, Anti-Jewish, Anti-Gay (male).

Four stages of Violentization

Stage 1: Brutalization, Stage 2: Belligerancy, Stage 3: Violent Performances, Stage 4: Virulency.

Stage 1: Brutalization

Exposure to violent subjugation and violent coaching commmited by others.

Stage 2: Belligerancy

Person first stands up to others with violence themselves and comes out victorious.

Stage 3: Violent Performances

Violence gets repeated and others view person with trepidation.

Stage 4: Virulency

Violent personalities emerges and violence is used as an offessive weapon.

Death Penalty in America

Total of 27 states retain it, 2,180 prisoners under sentence of death in U.S., All jurisdictions that execute use lethal injection as primary method; hold other methods as alternative or by choice (electocution, gas chamber, firing squad, hanging; nitrogen hypoxia).

Robbery

Taking something directly from a person through the use of force or threat of force and/or putting the victim in fear.

Three Cases in history that recieved national attention

Patty Hearst (1973), Lufthansa Heist (1978), Dr. Pam Basu (1991).

Patty Hearst (1973)

Grandaughter of very wealthy American, kidnapped by “SLA”, held hostage, caught on camera participating in a bank robbery, allegedly joined with captors under name Tania.

Lufthansa Heist (1978)

Robbery at JFK airport terminal that netted nearly 6 million; film Goodfellas based on it.

Dr. Pam Basu (1991)

Victim of an armed carjacking in Colombia, MD who was dragged to her death trying to rescue her baby that was in a car seat in the back seat of the car.

Strong-Arm Robbery

W/O weapon; mugging robbery; lesser offense.

Armed Robbery

With a weapon (or perception of a weapon), usually a handgun; most well-known form is the “stick-up”.

Jack-Roller (Clifford Shaw)

Youth who targeted and robbed drunk men and men paying for sex in city areas.

Personal Robbery

Against a person most often moving about or in a residence as in home invasion robbery (more common).

Commercial Robbery

Against a retail business, bank (less common).

How Common is Robbery

Appears to be a crime that is rapidly decreasing and may drop even more as cash becomes increasingly scarce.