psych 341 chapter 2

What was the main attraction of Noell's Ark Gorilla Show?

Wrestling matches with an adult chimpanzee. The humans always lost, often within a few seconds.

Why did humans lose their muscle mass compared to their ancestors?

Evolutionary trade-offs when humans became a cultural species.

What is one definition of culture mentioned in the text?

Culture refers to symbolic coding, involving signals, icons, and words recognized by members of that culture.

What is a broader definition of culture that avoids circularity?

Culture as information acquired through social learning from members of one's own species.

What is the significance of Imo the macaque in cultural learning?

Imo invented the technique of washing sweet potatoes, which was learned by others in her troupe.

What percentage of Imo's troupe learned to wash potatoes after three years?

40% of the other macaques.

How do chimpanzees from Mt. Assirik and Gombe National Park differ in termite extraction?

Mt. Assirik chimps use twigs to fish out termites, while Gombe chimps use peeled bark.

How many specific behaviors distinguishing chimpanzee troupes have been identified?

39 specific behaviors.

What evidence of cultural learning exists in dolphins?

Bottlenose dolphins use marine sponges as foraging tools, learned from their mothers.

What distinguishes different populations of killer whales?

They speak different dialects that change over time.

What is a cultural learning example in pigeons?

Pigeons learn specific food acquisition strategies from other pigeons.

Do nonhuman species excel at cultural learning compared to humans?

No, nonhuman species are not as good at cultural learning compared to humans.

What is a notable difference in how humans learn cultural information compared to other species?

Humans can frequently learn new information from each other with only a single exposure.

What does the text suggest about the extent of cultural learning in humans?

Humans stand out in the extent of their cultural learning skills.

What was the primary concern that led to the end of the wrestling matches?

The well-being of the chimps or the safety of the human challengers.

What common ancestor do humans and chimpanzees share?

A common ancestor that existed about 5-7 million years ago.

What are some other species besides primates that show evidence of cultural learning?

Dolphins, whales, pigeons, guppies, and octopuses.

What is the implication of humans being less muscular than their ancestors?

It reflects the evolutionary trade-offs made during the development of cultural traits.

What is prestige bias in humans?

The tendency to imitate behaviors of individuals who are viewed as prestigious or skilled.

What did researchers find about 4-year-old children's imitation behavior?

Children are more likely to imitate the choices of a prestigious model who received attention over one who did not.

How do killer whales demonstrate cultural learning?

Different populations of killer whales speak different dialects, which can change over time.

Which animals have shown evidence of cultural learning?

Pigeons, various bird species, guppies, and certain species of octopus.

How does cultural learning in macaques compare to that in humans?

Cultural learning in macaques is much slower and less efficient than in humans.

What is the significance of the study on Japanese macaques washing potatoes?

It illustrates that while some macaques learned the technique, it took a long time and many never figured it out.

What are the three types of learning biases in humans?

Prestige bias, similarity bias, and conformist transmission.

What is similarity bias?

The tendency to choose whom to imitate based on the model's similarity to oneself.

How does similarity bias affect children's learning?

Children tend to imitate individuals who share key characteristics with them, such as gender or ethnicity.

What effect does having an instructor of the same ethnicity have on students?

Students are less likely to drop out and earn higher grades when their instructor shares their ethnicity.

What is mentalizing in the context of learning?

The ability to understand and consider the perspectives, intentions, and goals of others.

How does perspective taking enhance learning?

It allows individuals to better understand the strategies and preferences of those they are learning from.

What is a potential downside of prestige bias?

It can lead to the imitation of harmful behaviors, such as copycat suicides after a celebrity's death.

How do advertisers exploit prestige bias?

They use prestigious individuals to promote products that may not be related to their skills.

What is the role of cultural learning in human evolution?

It provided a survival advantage by enabling the acquisition of useful cultural knowledge.

What is conformist transmission?

The tendency to adopt behaviors that are popular or common within a group.

What is the main difference between human and nonhuman cultural learning?

Humans are more efficient and selective in their cultural learning compared to nonhuman species.

What does the term 'cultural learning' refer to?

The process by which individuals acquire knowledge, behaviors, and skills from others in their culture.

How do dialects in animal communication change over time?

Similar to human culture, animal dialects can evolve and differ among populations.

What is the significance of the study by Chudek et al. (2011)?

It demonstrated that children imitate prestigious models more than non-prestigious ones.

Why is it important for individuals to identify signs of prestige?

It helps them target successful individuals to imitate, increasing their chances of learning effectively.

What is the impact of cultural learning on survival?

Effective cultural learning can provide individuals with skills and knowledge that enhance their survival chances.

What does the term 'cultural practices' encompass?

Shared behaviors, traditions, and tools that are prevalent within a culture.

How does cultural learning vary across species?

Some species exhibit slow and inefficient cultural learning, while humans demonstrate rapid and effective learning.

What is the motivation behind imitating similar others?

Copying actions demonstrates group identity and affiliation.

How do young children demonstrate conformity in behavior?

They may actively punish those who behave differently, even without personal implications.

What are the three key cognitive capacities that support cultural learning in humans?

1. Considering the perspective of others 2. Communicating using language 3. Motivation to share experiences.

What is the logic behind conformist transmission?

If an idea is useful, it will likely be adopted by more people.

What factors influence the tendency to imitate common behaviors?

Difficulty of the task, lack of confidence, and the presence of multiple options.

What is mentalizing?

The ability to understand the mental states and intentions of others.

How does mentalizing develop across cultures?

It emerges early in infants and develops uniformly across diverse cultures.

What distinguishes human mentalizing abilities from those of nonhuman primates?

Humans have a more developed capacity to appreciate the perspectives and intentions of others.

What is imitative learning?

A form of cultural learning where the learner internalizes the model's goals and strategies.

How do chimpanzees typically learn compared to humans?

Chimpanzees often engage in emulative learning, focusing on the object rather than the model's intentions.

What is emulative learning?

A form of cultural learning where the learner focuses on environmental events rather than imitating a model's strategies.

What was the outcome of the study comparing chimpanzees and children using a rake?

Children showed imitative learning by copying the model's method, while chimpanzees demonstrated emulative learning by using the rake more effectively.

What does the study of tool use in chimpanzees and children illustrate about learning?

It highlights the differences in learning strategies, with children imitating and chimpanzees innovating based on observation.

What is the significance of understanding the intentions of others in cultural learning?

It allows individuals to internalize goals and reproduce effective strategies.

What evidence suggests that chimpanzees raised with humans exhibit better mentalizing skills?

They show more evidence of mentalizing compared to those raised in the wild.

What are the implications of the differences in learning strategies between humans and chimpanzees?

These differences affect the capacity for cultural learning and the transmission of knowledge.

What type of learning do chimpanzees and other primates tend to use?

Emulative learning, which focuses on relevant behaviors rather than imitating all actions of a model.

What is overimitation in children?

The tendency of children to imitate all actions of a model, including irrelevant ones, even when instructed not to.

What age group of children was studied for overimitation?

3- to 5-year-old children.

How do chimpanzees differ from children in problem-solving?

Chimpanzees copy only the relevant behaviors necessary to achieve a goal, while children may copy irrelevant actions.

What cultural factors influence children's overimitation?

Overimitation occurs in children from various cultures, including those with minimal guided instruction from adults.

What is a significant finding about children with developmental disorders regarding imitation?

Children with developmental disorders, such as Down syndrome or autism, also exhibit a tendency to overimitate.

What is a critical point about emulative learning?

While effective, emulative learning does not allow for the accumulation of cultural information.

How do humans differ from other species in terms of language?

Humans possess complex grammar and syntax, which no other species has demonstrated.

What is the role of language in human cultural learning?

Language allows for the communication of complex ideas, beliefs, and intentions, facilitating coordination among individuals.

What is the significance of sharing experiences and goals in humans?

It is essential for cultural learning and helps coordinate behavior within groups.

What type of calls do vervet monkeys use?

Different calls to alert other monkeys to specific threats, such as eagles and snakes.

What have human-raised chimpanzees and gorillas been taught?

A number of words in sign language, but they do not use these signs as humans do.

What is a limitation of emulative learning compared to imitative learning?

Emulative learning may lead to more effective problem-solving but does not support the transmission of cultural knowledge.

What is a common behavior observed in children when they are alone after an experiment?

They may still copy irrelevant behaviors they observed, demonstrating a strong tendency to overimitate.

What is the implication of children's overimitation in different cultural settings?

It suggests that overimitation is a core aspect of human behavior, not solely dependent on specific cultural upbringing.

What is the relationship between mentalizing skills and cultural learning in humans?

Excellent mentalizing skills enable sophisticated cultural learning and communication.

What is the main drawback of emulative learning?

It does not allow for the accumulation and transmission of cultural information.

How does language facilitate cultural learning?

It enables the communication of ideas that cannot be visually demonstrated, enhancing understanding and coordination.

What is the impact of language on the transmission of cultural ideas?

Cultural ideas are most effectively transmitted through language, making it integral to cultural learning.

What innate tendencies do humans exhibit from a few months of age that facilitate sharing experiences?

Humans tend to take turns in conversations, gaze into each other's eyes, exchange emotions, and jointly pay attention to the same things.

What is collaborative learning?

Collaborative learning is when individuals engage in figuring things out together, sharing experiences and goals.

What preference do young children have regarding tasks?

Young children prefer to collaborate with a partner on a task rather than work alone.

How does collaboration contribute to cultural learning?

Collaboration allows people to exchange ideas, coordinate behavior, and create new ideas.

What is instructed learning?

Instructed learning is when a model directs the actions of learners to guide them toward a desired behavior.

What is scaffolding in the context of learning?

Scaffolding is a process where a model simplifies a task and directs a child's attention to relevant steps, making it easier for them to master the task.

How do adults typically guide children's learning?

Adults can guide children's participation by demonstrating correct behavior and providing explicit instructions.

In which societies is explicit instruction more common?

Explicit instruction is more common in WEIRD societies compared to small-scale societies or East Asian societies.

What does instructed learning convey to learners?

It conveys that there is a norm they are expected to learn, with guidance until they can reproduce the behavior accurately.

How do chimpanzees differ from humans in terms of learning?

Chimpanzees show little evidence of motivation to share experiences and goals, leading to less collaborative and instructed learning.

What is the ratchet effect in cultural learning?

The ratchet effect is the process where cultural information can be modified and improved upon over time without losing earlier information.

What is required for cumulative cultural evolution?

Cumulative cultural evolution requires creative invention and reliable social transmission of cultural practices.

What is the difference between emulative learning and cumulative cultural evolution?

Emulative learning involves individuals figuring things out on their own, while cumulative cultural evolution builds on each other's discoveries.

What is an example of cumulative cultural evolution in tool-making?

The evolution of the hammer, which has undergone many modifications over time, illustrates cumulative cultural evolution.

How does cultural learning provide humans with an advantage over other species?

Cultural learning allows humans to acquire, store, process, and organize information, leading to cumulative knowledge and innovation.

What role does communication play in high-fidelity social transmission?

Precise imitative learning and sophisticated communication are essential for accurately transmitting cultural information.

Why is the learning and retention of cultural knowledge poor in nonhuman species?

Nonhuman species often lack the capacity for significant cumulative cultural evolution, leading to poor retention of cultural knowledge.

What cognitive adaptations enable humans to learn from one another?

The ability and motivation to mentalize, communicate effectively via language, and share experiences and goals.

What implications does cumulative cultural evolution have for human development?

It allows for the continuous improvement and complexity of cultural practices, enhancing human adaptability.

What are some characteristics of how children learn in different cultural contexts?

Children in small-scale societies may wait more patiently and attentively, while those in WEIRD societies receive more explicit instruction.

What is the significance of the hammer's evolution in understanding cultural learning?

The hammer's evolution illustrates how cultural knowledge builds over time through shared innovations and adaptations.

What is the relationship between cultural learning and evolutionary adaptation?

Cultural learning sharpens our adaptive capacity to learn new information, reducing the need for genetic evolution for each problem.

How do chimpanzees demonstrate limitations in collaborative learning?

Chimpanzees engage in less turn-taking, show fewer shared interests, and are less likely to guide each other's behavior.